UFOfy^ 

n>l 

jaiH^ 


IDS-ANGELA 


«H$u 

i          v    rrt    ;          W 

Ci    s 


UBHfl^  ^ 

^1  i 

LL->s  > 

^1  I 

mm* 


RARY^          A\\EUNIVER5/A 

ir-^     ^^r'l 


§ 

wn-3^ 


<     § 


S\ME-UNIVER% 


«±        25 
2          > 


ii  i 


,INIH\\V 

RARYtte.          A\\EUNIVER% 


II 


^ 


3       § 

i  I 


^UIBRARYQ-r 


3    s 

i   1 


>1     I 
s     ^ 


* 

"%3AiNfl3\\v 


<$, 


I  i 

™  « 

SO  O 

^  "x 


ER% 

P'^ 


E     3 


S     I 


WOf        ^.HIBRARYO/  AMI  UNIVEBJ/^       ^UB-AHHlfl 


=      ^U23x  o    E 

^        S  ^-»^\  ^      ^ 

5      S 


^•UNIVERS^. 

^     § 

S   5 


£=          25 


SO  •—•' 

I  ^. 


LESSONS  AND  PKACTICAL 


STEAM, 

THE  STEAM  ENGINE,  PROPELLEKS, 


ETC.,  ETC., 


(Enjinwrs,  Stoteits,  atii 


BY   THE   LATE 


¥.  H.  KING,  U.  S.  K 


REVISED    BY 


CHIEF  ENGINEER  J.  W.  KING,  U.  S. 


[TmBTKEMTH  BOMTIOtf,   BKLAKGKD.J 


D.   VAN    NOSTRAND,    Publisher, 

23  MUBBAT  STEEET  &  27  WAEBEN  STKKKT. 
1870. 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  I860, 

BY  J.  W.  KING, 

In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States  for  the  Southern  District  of 
New  York. 


VM 

131 

K^ 


CONTENTS. 


INTRODUCTION,  PAGE  5. 
CHAPTER  I. 


Steam,  7.  Mechanical  Effect,  9.  Expansion  of  Steam,  12.  Table  of  Hyperbolic 
Logarithms,  14.  Back  Pressure,  16.  Gain  by  Expanded  Steam,  18. 

EXPANSION   VALVES. 

Sickel's,  19.    Stevens',  22.    Allen  &  Wells',  23. 

SLIDE  CUT-OFFS. 

Explanation,  24.     Gridiron  Valve,  26.     Wabash  Valve,  29. 

OTHER   KINDS   OF  VALVES. 

Double  Poppet,  30.  Single  Poppet,  81.  Hornblower's,  32.  Box  Valve,  S3- 
Equilibrium  Slide,  34.  Double  Slide  Valve,  34.  Piston  Valve,  35.  Long 
D  Slide,  36.  Short  D  Slide,  Si.  Worthington  Pump  Valve,  38.  Pitts- 
burg  Cam,  39. 

CHAPTER  II. 

THE   INDICATOR   AND   INDICATOR   DIAGRAMS. 

The  Indicator,  41.  Cylinder  Diagrams,  44.  Air-pump  Diagrams,  56.  Power 
Required  to  Work  the  Air-pump,  60. 

CHAPTER  HI. 

THK    HYDROMETER. 

The  Hydrometer,  62.  Loss  by  Blowing-off,  64.  Gain  by  the  Use  of  Heaters, 
68.  Injection  Water,  71.  Evaporation,  72.  Steam  and  Vacuum  Gauges,  75. 


412139 


4  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  IV. 

(M.USALTIES,    ETC. 

Broken  Eccentric,  79.  Leaking  Vessel,  79.  Irregular  Feed,  80.  Foaming,  81. 
Hot  Condenser,  83.  Getting  Under  Way,  85.  Coming  into  Port,  86. 
Scaling  Boilers,  88.  On  Coming  to  Anchor,  etc.,  89.  Management  of 
Fires,  90.  Patching  Boilers,  93.  Sweeping  Flues,  95.  Ash  Pits,  95. 
Smoke-pipe  Stays,  96.  Grate  Bars,  Ac.,  96.  Broken  Air-pump,  97.  Bro- 
ken Cylinder-head,  98.  Selection  of  Coal,  98.  Safety  Valve,  99. 

CHAPTER  V. 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

Theory  of  the  Paddle  Wheel,  101.  Centre  of  Pressure,  114.  Screw  Propeller, 
116.  Altering  the  Pitch,  132.  Parallel  Motion,  133.  Strength  of  Mate- 
rials, 136.  Surface  Condensers,  141.  Cylindrical  Boilers,  145.  Boiler 
Explosions,  148.  Horse  Power,  150.  Vibration  of  Beams,  152.  Marine 
Economy,  154.  Limit  to  Expansion,  155.  The  Proper  Lift  for  a  Valve, 
155.  Temperature  of  Condenser,  156. 

CHAPTER  VI. 

WESTERN    RIVER   BOAT   ENGINE. 

Western  River  High-Pressure  Engine,  159.  Side  Elevation,  159.  End  View, 
160.  Explanations  of  Diagrams,  160.  Hartuper's  Lifter,  165.  Stern  Wheel 
Boats,  167.  Dimensions  and  Proportions  of  the  Magnolia,  169. 

CHAPTER  VIL 

BOILERS,    ETC. 

Water-Tube  Boiler,  172.  Horizontal  Fire  Tube,  173.  Extracts  from  Report  of 
Experiments  made  to  Determine  the  Relative  Efficiency  of  the  Two  Boilers, 
174.  Western  River  Boilers,  179.  Boiler  Flues,  184.  Riveting,  186.  Su- 
perheated Steam,  189.  Draft,  191. 

APPENDIX. 

MATERIALS. 

How  to  Test  Iron,  194.  Cast  Iron,  195.  Malleable  Iron,  198.  Steel,  202.  Te- 
nacity of  Metals,  206.  Transverse  Strength,  206.  Resistance  to  Torsion, 
207.  Results  of  Repeated  Heating  Bar  Iron,  207.  Strength  of  Joints  of 
Boiler  Plates,  209. 

THE   ELEMENTS    OP   MACHINERY. 

Motion,  211.  Application  of  Power,  212.  The  Lever,  215.  Inclined  Plane,  217. 
Wheel  and  Axle,  219.  Pulley,  219.  Screw,  223.  Wedge,  224.  Centre 
of  Gravity,  225.  Centre  of  Pressure,  225  Gravity,  225.  Displacement  of 
Fluids,  227.  Table  of  Pressure,  Temperature,  and  Volume  of  Steam,  228. 


INTRODUCTION. 


WKITHSTG  a  book  and  then  apologizing  for  having 
written  it,  is  hardly  in  accordance  with  our  convic- 
tions ;  but  considering,  nevertheless,  the  eminent  tal- 
ent which  has  preceded  us  upon  the  subject  we  have 
taken  up,  a  few  remarks  of  explanation  may  not  be 
out  of  place.  Books  heretofore  appearing  on  the 
steam  engine,  have  been  of  two  classes,  or  the  work 
itself  has  been  divided  into  two  parts — the  one  for  the 
theorist,  the  other  for  the  practical  man.  In  the  one 
case  long  mathematical  formulas  have  been  produced, 
and  in  the  other  nothing  but  simple  rules.  The  prac- 
tical man,  therefore,  who  has  not  had  the  advantage 
of  a  mathematical  education,  has  nothing  presented  to 
him  but  the  bare  rules,  which  he  is  compelled  wholly 
to  reject,  or  take  entirely  upon  trust.  Besides,  these 
works  extend  over  numerous  volumes,  the  study  of 
which  involve  much  time,  labor,  and  expense,  and 
which  usually  disheartens  the  practical  man  before  he 
has  made  much  progress.  Having  had  many  of  these 
difficulties  to  surmount  in  our  earlier  studies  of  the 
steam  engine,  we  were  led  to  the  course  of  keeping  a 
Steam  Journal,  in  which  we  noted,  from  time  to  time, 
as  we  progressed,  whatever  we  thought  important,  and 
was  made  clear  to  our  mind  ;  and  this  course  we  would 
also  recommend  the  young  student ;  for,  however  well 


6  rNTKODUCTION. 

it  may  be  to  study  books  containing  otter  mens1 
thoughts,  when  we  write  we  are  led  to  the  habit  of 
thinking  for  ourselves,  which  is  of  the  highest  impor- 
tance ;  and,  by  keeping  a  journal,  we  have  also  the 
very  great  advantage  of  having  always  at  our  com- 
mand, in  a  condensed  form,  those  things  which  are  the 
more  important,  and  which  can  be  referred  to  at  any 
time. 

Much  of  the  present  work  has  been  taken  from  the 
Author's  Journal,  and  the  remainder  has  been  sup- 
plied, from  time  to  time,  as  he  found  leisure  from  his 
hours  of  business. 

Our  object  has  not  been  so  much  to  supply  want- 
ing information,  as  to  direct  the  student  into  the  habit 
of  thinking  and  reasoning  for  himself  on  those  subjects 
which  may  be  presented  for  his  consideration,  and 
which,  in  order  that  he  may  become  eminent  in  his 
profession,  he  must  thoroughly  understand.  It  is  not 
sufficient  to  assert  that  Newton  said  this,  or  somebody 
else  said  that.  The  reasons  why  they  said  it,  and  the 
fundamental  principles  upon  which  they  based  their 
conclusions,  are  necessary  to  be  understood,  in  order 
to  have  a  clear  understanding  of  the  subject ;  and  if 
we  have  succeeded  in  making  any  thing  more  clear, 
or  in  rendering  any  service  to  that  class  of  persons 
who  are  eagerly  seeking  for  information,  but  who  re- 
quire some  assistance  to  direct  them  in  the  proper 
channel,  our  only  object  in  launching  this,  our  little 
bark,  on  the  troubled  sea  of  authorship,  is  fully  accom- 
plished, conscious  all  the  while,  however,  of  the  many 
imperfections  it  contains. 


LESSONS  AND  PRACTICAL  NOTES. 


CHAPTEK  I. 

STEAM. 

STEAM  is  a  thin,  elastic,  invisible  fluid,  generated 
by  the  application  of  heat  to  any  liquid,  usually  water. 
That,  however,  which  is  generated  while  the  water 
is  in  a  state  of  ebullition,  is  alone  generally  termed 
steam,  while  that  which  is  formed  while  the  surface  of 
the  water  is  quiescent,  is  denominated  vapor — a  dis- 
tinction, to  our  mind,  without  much  difference. 

The  mean  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  at  the  sur- 
face of  the  ocean  is  equal  to  14.?  pounds  per  square 
inch,  or  is  equivalent  in  pressure  to  a  column  of  mer-r 
cury  29.9212  inches  in  height.     Under  this  pressure,  ^^ 
fresh  water  boils  at  a  temperature  of  212°  Fahrenheit.  -  ,  ^,6  $ 

The  212°  is,  however,  not  the  total  number  of  de-  <^.  **• 
grees  in  the  steam,  but  simply  that  which  is  indicated  'OkA^ 
by  the  thermometer,  and  which   is  termed  sensible  ^ 
heat ;  for  we  all  know  that  to  raise  water  from  the 
freezing  to  the  boiling  point  requires  a  certain  time,, 
and  a  certain  amount  of  fuel ;  and  we  know  further, 
that  when  the  water  commences  to  boil,  it  does  not  all 
evaporate  at  once,  but  that  the  evaporation  goes  oo 


8  STEAM. 

gradually,  and  the  time,  and  hence  the  fuel  required 
to  evaporate  it,  is  much  greater  than  that  required  to 
raise  it  from  the  freezing  to  the  boiling  point.  This 
extra  heat  must  have  gone  off  somewhere,  and  must 
be  in  the  steam,  but  as  it  is  not  indicated  by  the  ther- 
mometer, it  is  termed  latent  heat.  When  the  steam  is 
reconverted  into  water,  the  latent  heat  becomes  again 
sensible,  which  is  evidenced  by  the  large  amount  of 
water  required  to  condense  a  small  amount  in  the 
shape  of  steam.  The  precise  ratio  the  one  bears  to 
the  other  shows  the  latent,  compared  with  the  sensible 
heat. 

The  subject  of  latent  heat  has  been  one  of  unusual 
interest,  ever  since  the  invention  of  the  steam  engine, 
and  numerous  theories  have  been  advanced,  and  nu- 
merous experiments  made — some  of  them  not  very 
carefully — in  order  to  determine  the  exact  law  it  fol- 
lowed ;  but  none,  up  to  Regnault's  time,  seem  to  have 
settled  the  subject  satisfactorily.  Some  maintained 
that  the  latent  heat  of  steam  was  a  constant  quantity, 
some  that  the  sum  of  sensible  and  latent  heat  was  a 
constant  quantity,  and  that  quantity  was  1202°  Fahr- 
enheit. This  was  the  most  popular  theory,  and  was 
the  one  generally  adopted  by  engineers.  Others, 
again,  maintained  that  neither  the  sensible,  latent,  nor 
sum  of  the  sensible  and  latent  heats,  were  a  constant 
quantity,  but  that  they  all  varied.  The  exact  ratio, 
however,  in  which  they  varied  was  not  established 
until  Regnault  undertook  his  able  series  of  experi- 
ments at  the  instigation  of  the  French  Government. 
These  are  the  latest  and  most  reliable  experiments, 
and  we  subjoin,  therefore,  a  table  compiled  from  his 
labors,  which  we  earnestly  recommend  to  the  attention 
of  the  reader. 


MECHANICAL   EFFECT. 


REGNAULT'S  EXPERIMENTS. 


Degrees  of  heat  contained  in  saturated  steam,  in  Fahrenheit  degrees 
of  heat  and  English  inches. 


lit? 

Corresponding  elastic 

!10~- 

*|f| 

Corresponding  elastic 

It* 

°  ^  -  "? 

force 

^  5  o  ^ 

®  "«    °  ^ 

force 

"J5  c  ^^3 

51-g 

fill 

||^| 

fgSf! 

II  al 

In 

In  Atmo- 

aM? 

!|sj 

In 

In  Atmo- 

^§jl 

I1!"3 

Inches. 

spheres. 

II  ° 

J^b3 

Inches. 

spheres. 

II  b 

°Fah. 

32 

0.1811 

0.006 

1123.70 

248 

58.7116 

1.962 

1189.58 

50 

0.3606 

0.012 

1129.10 

266 

79.9321 

2.671 

1194.98 

68 

0.6846 

0.023 

1134.68 

284 

106.9930 

3.576 

1200.58 

1   86 

1.2421 

0.042 

1140.16 

302 

140.9930 

4.712 

1205.96 

104 

2.1618 

0.072 

1145.66 

320 

183.1342 

6.120 

1211.54 

122 

3.6212 

0.121 

1151.06 

338 

234.7105 

7.844 

1216.94 

140 

5.8578 

0.196 

1156.64 

356 

297.1013 

9.929 

1222.52 

158 

9.1767 

0.306 

1162.04 

374 

371.7590 

12.425 

1227.92 

176 

13.9621 

0.466 

1167.62 

392 

460.1943 

15.380 

1233.50 

194 

20.6869 

0.691 

1173.02 

410 

560.9673 

18.848 

1238.90 

212 

29.9212 

1.000 

1178.60 

428 

684.6584 

22.882 

1244.48 

230 

42.3374 

1.415 

1184.00 

446 

823.8723 

27.535 

1249.88 

FIG.  1. 


MECHANICAL   EFFECT. 

We  will  now  take  into  consideration  the  mechani- 
cal effect  of  steam,  and  a  common-place  demonstration 
will  serve  our  purpose. 

Suppose  a  cylinder,  A,  Fig. 
1,  to  be  one  square  inch  in 
area  of  cross  section,  and  fitted 
with  a  steam  tight  piston,  at- 
tached by  means  of  a  flexible  g  /-K 


cord  to  the  weight  <5,  which  is 
of  sufficient  size  to  balance  the 
weight  of  the  piston,  and  all 
the  parts  to  work  without 
friction.  Now  suppose  a  quan- 
tity of  water,  equal  to  one 
cubic  inch,  to  be  placed  in  the  bottom  of  this  cylinder, 


•© 


10  MECHANICAL   EFFECT. 

and  a  fire  to  be  lighted  under  it.  The  temperature 
of  the  water  will  gradually  rise  until  it  attains  212°, 
when  it  will  commence  to  boil,  and  the  piston  will 
soon  begin,  and  continue  to  rise — if  the  cylinder  be 
long  enough — until  it  obtains  a  height  of  1700  inches 
from  the  base.  This  1700  is  the  volume  of  steam  at 
atmospheric  pressure,  the  water  being  1,  from  which  it 
is  generated.  If,  now,  we  suppose  to  be  added  to  the 
weight,  3,  another  weight  equal  to  the  pressure  of  the 
atmosphere — or  a  fraction  less,  so  that  motion  may  en- 
sue— and  the  steam  under  the  piston  to  be  condensed, 
the  piston  will  return  to  the  bottom  of  the  cylinder 
by  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere,  through  a  space 
of  1700  inches,  and  will  have  raised  the  extra  weight  of 
14.7  Ibs.  appended  to  #,  up  that  distance.  Hence  this 
cubic  inch  of  water,  by  its  evaporation,  produced  a 
mechanical  effect  of  raising  14.7  pounds  through  a 
space  of  1700  inches  =  (14.7  X  1700)  —  24,990  pounds 
through  one  inch. 

Let  us  now  take  another  cylinder,  B,  Fig.  2,  similar 
in  every  respect  to  A,  excepting  that  the  piston  has  a 
weight  laid  upon  it  equal  to  the  pressure  of  the  atmo- 
sphere, viz.,  14.7  pounds,  and  suppose  a  fire  to  be 
lighted  under  this  cylinder.  The  water,  as  in  the 
other  case,  will  be  heated  up  to  the  boiling  point, — 
which,  in  this  case,  will  be  250°,  corresponding  to  the 
pressure  of  two  atmospheres — when  it  will  commence 
to  evaporate,  and  the  piston  will  rise  until  it  obtains  a 
height  of  900  inches  from  the  base,  this  being  the 
volume  of  steam  under  the  pressure  of  two  atmo- 
spheres, water  being  1.  If,  now,  we  suppose  this  pis- 
ton to  be  fixed  where  it  is,  the  weight  removed  from 
the  top  of  it  and  applied  to  c,  then  the  steam  condensed 
and  the  piston  unfixed,  it  will  return  to  the  bottom  of 


MECHAIHCAL   EFFECT.  11 

the  cylinder,  raising  the  weight  applied  to  c,  up  a  dis- 
tance of  900  inches.  Now,  then,  since  the  weight  of 
14.7  Ibs.  was  first  raised  900  inches  on  the  top  of  the 
piston,  and  afterwards  raised  the  same  distance  by  be- 
ing attached  to  c,  the  total  distance  moved  =  (900  X  2) 
=  1800  inches,  which  is  equal  to  (14.7  X  1800)  =  26460 
pounds  raised  one  inch.  The  difference,  therefore,  be- 
tween the  work  done  in  the  first  and  second  case 
=  (26460-24990)  =  1470  Ibs.  raised  one  inch  high, 
which  is  5.88  per  cent,  of  the  first  number.  If  this 
extra  work  was  obtained  without  any  extra  fuel,  which 
would  be  the  case  were  the  total  heat  in  steam  at  all 
temperatures  a  constant  quantity,  it  would  be  all  gain, 
but  as  such  is  not  the  case,  and  as  more  heat  is  required 
in  the  latter  than  in  the  former  case,  we  will  see  what 
this  amounts  to,  and  the  difference  between  this  loss 
and '  the  other  gain  will  show  the  true  gain.  In  the 
first  instance,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  total  heat  in  the 
steam  was  1178.6°,  and  in  the  second,  1190°;  hence, 
supposing  the  water  in  both  cases  to  be  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  100°  before  the  fires  are  lighted — which  is 
about  the  temperature  at  which  water  is  fed  into  ma- 
rine boilers — there  would  be  required  in  the  latter 
case  (1190°-  100)  =  1090°  from  the  fuel,  and  in  the 
former  case  (1178.6°— 100°)  =  1078.6°  from  the  fuel; 
difference  11.4°,  which  is  1.057  per  cent,  of  1078.6°. 

The  extra  fuel,  therefore,  required  under  the  pres- 
sure of  two  atmospheres  is  1.057  per  cent.,  and  the 
extra  work  done  is  5.88  per  cent.,  leaving  a  gain  of 
4.823  per  cent. 

In  the  same  way  we  could  ascertain  what  the  gain 
would  be  at  any  other  pressure,  either  higher  or  lower; 
but  these  examples  suffice  to  show  that  the  higher  the 
pressure  of  the  steam,  the  greater  is  the  mechanical 


12  EXPANSION    OF   STEAM. 

effect  with  the  same  amount  of  fuel,  but  the  gain  is 
small,  and  in  practice,  therefore,  where  great  accuracy 
is  not  required,  it  is  neglected  altogether. 

Starting,  therefore,  from  the  assumption  that  the 
mechanical  effect  performed  by  the  same  amount  of 
fuel  is  the  same,  no  matter  what  the  pressure  may  be 
under  which  the  steam  is  generated,  we  shall  proceed 
to  the  study  of  the 


EXPANSION   OF   STEAM. 

Opening  a  communication  with  the  cylinder  and 
shutting  it  off  again  before  the  piston  arrives  at  the 
end  of  the  stroke  is  called  expansion  of  steam,  or  work- 
ing steam  expansively.  Thus,  supposing  steam  to  be 
admitted  into  the  cylinder  until  the  piston  arrives  at 
half  stroke,  and  the  communication  then  to  be  shut  off, 
the  steam  already  in  the  cylinder,  by  its  expansion, 
will  force  the  piston  to  the  end  of  the  stroke;  by 
which  arrangement  we  gain  all  the  work  performed 
after  the  steam  is  cut-off. 

no.  s.  Take,  for  instance,  a  cylinder,  A,  Fig.  3, 

two  units  in  length,  one  unit  in  area  of 
cross  section,  and  an  initial  pressure  of  1, 
the  work  performed  during  the  first  half 
stroke,  i.  e.,  while  the  piston  travels  from 
t>  to  c,  will  be  1  X  1  X  1  (area  x  pressure 
X  distance  travelled  =)  1,  and  the  work 
performed  during  the  latter  half  stroke  =: 
I  X  .69  X  1  =  .69,  the  total  work,  there- 
.  fore,  performed  throughout    the   stroke 
=  1.69.     Now,  if  the  steam,  instead  of  be- 
ing expanded  from  c  to  d,  had  been  exhausted  at  c,  the 
total  work  performed  would  have  been  only  1  instead 


EXPANSION   OF   STEAM.  13 

of  1.69,  and  the  quantity  of  steam  would  have  been  the 
same,  hence  we  see  that  by  cutting  off  at  one  half  the 
same  steam  performs  69  per  cent,  more  work.  This  69 
per  cent,  is  what  is  termed  the  gain  in  cutting  off,  but  it 
does  not,  however,  represent  the  saving  in  fuel,  as  we 
will  show  presently;  but  before  proceeding  to  illus- 
trate that  subject  we  will  explain  to  the  student,  from 
what  source  we  derive  this  69. 

Marriotte's  law  of  gases  is,  that  the  spaces  occupied 
are  inversely  as  the  pressures.  That  is  to  say,  if  steam 
of  20  pounds  pressure  per  square  inch,  be  allowed  tc 
expand  into  double  the  space,  the  pressure  will  be 
10  Ibs. ;  if  triple,  6-f  Ibs. ;  if  four  times,  5  Ibs. ;  if  five 
times,  4  Ibs.,  and  so  on.  This  theory  would  be  liter- 
ally correct  did  the  temperatures  remain  constant ;  but 
as  the  temperature  of  all  gases  becomes  reduced  by  ex- 
pansion, the  law  does  not  hold  good  ;  nevertheless,  in 
the  steam  engine,  where  there  are  so  many  extraneous 
circumstances  which  practically  affect  all  calculations 
appertaining  to  the  same,  it  is  considered  all  that  is 
ever  required,  and  from  its  extreme  simplicity  is  uni- 
versally adopted. 

From  this  law  the  pressure  can  be 
ascertained  approximately  by  dividing 
the  cylinder  into  a  number  of  equal 
parts,  say  eight,  ascertaining  the  pres- 
sure  at  each  of  those  points,  and  taking 
the  mean.  If  the  initial  pressure,  as 
before,  be  supposed  to  be  unity,  the 
pressure  at  each  of  the  first  four  divi- 
sions  cutting  off  at  half  stroke  will  be 
1 ;  at  the  fifth  division  (-f-  =)  .8  ;  at  the 
6th  (-1)  =  .6666;  at  the  7th  (±  — )  .5714; 
at  the  8th  (|  =)  .5 ;  the  mean  pressure,  therefore,  by 


14 


TABLE    OF   HYPEEBOLIC    LOGAEITHMS. 


this  process,  after  the  steam  is  cut  off  =  .6B45,  and  the 
mean  pressure  before  it  is  cut  off  =  1,  the  mean,  there- 
fore, throughout  the  stroke  =  (-t^ -\  =  .8172. — 

This,  however,  is  only  an  approximation,  and  in  order 
to  arrive  at  any  degree  of  accuracy,  the  divisions  would 
have  to  be  very  numerous,  which  would  render  the 
operation  tedious  and  lengthy.  Fortunately,  however, 
we  can  dispense  with  this  part  of  the  calculation  alto- 
gether, for  the  Naperian  or  Hyperbolic  logarithms,  as 
set  forth  in  the  following  table,  furnish  to  our  hand 
the  ratios  of  pressures : 

TABLE  OF  HYPERBOLIC  LOGARITHMS. 


1 

tr 

1 

3. 

|l 

! 

o 

Is 

1 

3 

if 

1 

fc 

£ 

w 

fc 

& 

a 

& 

§ 

fc 

& 

a 

I 

1 

1.05 

.049 

3.05 

1.115 

5.05 

1.619 

7.05 

1.953 

9.05 

2.203 

1.1 

.095 

3.1 

1.131 

5.1 

1.629 

,  7.1 

1.960 

9.1 

2.208 

1.15 

.140 

3.15 

1.147 

5.15 

1.639 

7.15 

1.967 

9.15 

2.214 

1.2 

.182 

3.2 

1.163 

5.2 

1.649 

7.2 

1.974 

9.2 

2.219 

1.25 

.223 

3.25 

1.179 

5.25 

1.658 

7.25 

1.981 

9.25 

2.225 

1.3 

.262 

3.3 

1.194 

5.3 

1.668 

7.3 

1.988 

9.3 

2.230 

1.35 

.300 

3.35 

1.209 

5.35 

1.677 

7.35 

1.995 

9.35 

2.235 

1.4 

.336 

3.4 

1.224 

5.4 

1.686 

7.4 

2.001 

9.4 

2.241 

1.45 

.372 

3.45 

1.238 

5.45 

1.696 

7.45 

2.008 

9.45 

2.246 

1.5 

.405 

3.5 

1.253 

5.5 

1.705 

7.5 

2.015 

9.5 

2.251 

1.55 

.438 

3.55 

1.267 

5.55 

1.714 

7.55 

2.022 

9.55 

2.257 

1.6 

.470 

3.6 

1.281 

5.6 

1.723 

7.6 

2.028 

9.6 

2.262 

1.65 

.500 

3.65 

1.295 

5.65 

1.732 

7.65 

2.035 

9.65 

2.267 

1.7 

.531 

3.7 

1.308 

5.7 

1.740 

7.7 

2.041 

9.7 

2.272 

1.75 

.560 

3.75 

1.322 

5.75 

1.749 

7.75 

2.048 

9.75 

2.277 

1.8 

.588 

3.8 

1.335 

5.8 

1.758 

7.8 

2.054 

9.8 

2.282 

1.85 

.615 

3.85 

1.348 

5.85 

1.766 

7-85 

2.061 

9.85 

2.287 

1.9 

.642 

3.9 

1.361 

5.9 

1.775 

7.9 

2.067 

9.9 

2.293 

1.95 

.668 

3.95 

1.374 

5.95 

1.783 

7.95 

2.073 

9.95 

2298 

2. 

.693 

4. 

1.386 

6. 

1-792 

8. 

2.079 

10. 

2.303 

2.05 

.718 

4.05 

1.399 

6.05 

1.800 

8.05 

2.086 

15. 

2.708 

2.1 

.742 

4.1 

1.411 

6.1 

1.808 

8.1 

2.092 

20. 

2.996 

2.15 

.765 

4.15 

1.423 

6.15 

1.816 

8.15 

2.098 

25. 

3.219 

2.2 

.788 

4.2 

1.435 

6.2 

1.824 

8.2 

2.104 

30. 

3.401 

2.25 

.811 

4.25 

1.447 

6.25 

1.833 

8.25 

2.110 

35. 

3.555 

2.3 

4.3 

1.459 

6.3 

1.841 

8.3 

2.116 

40. 

3.689 

2.35 

!854 

4.35 

1.470 

6.35 

1.848 

8.35 

212-2 

45. 

3.807 

2.4 

.875 

4.4 

1.482 

6.4 

1.856 

8.4 

2.128 

60. 

3.912 

2.45 

.896 

4.45 

1.493 

6.45 

1.864 

8.45 

2.134 

55. 

4.007 

2.5 

.916 

4.5 

1.504 

6.5 

1.872 

8.5 

2.140 

60. 

4.094 

2.55 

.936 

4.55 

1.515 

6.55 

1.879 

8.55 

2.146 

65. 

4.174 

2.6 

.956 

4.6 

1.526 

6.6 

1.887 

8.6 

2.152 

70. 

4.248 

2.65 

.975 

4.65 

1.537 

6.65 

1.895 

8.65 

2.158 

75. 

4.317 

2.7 

4.7 

1.548 

6.7 

1.902 

8.7 

2.163 

80. 

4.382 

2.75 

L012 

4.75 

1.558 

6.75 

1.910 

8.75 

2.169 

85. 

4.443 

2:8 

1.032 

4.8 

1.569 

6.8 

1.917 

8.8 

2.175 

90. 

4.500 

2.85 

1.047 

4.85 

1.579 

6.85 

1.924 

8.85 

2.180 

95. 

4.554 

2.9 

1.065 

4.9 

1.589 

6.9 

1.931 

8.9 

•2.186    j 

100. 

4.605 

2.95 

1.082 

4.95 

1.599 

6.95 

1.939 

8.95 

2.192 

1000. 

6.908 

3. 

1.099 

5. 

1.609 

7. 

1.946 

9. 

2.197 

0000. 

9.210 

fl<.    /.- 

«^H^.                                                      '     '  •  - 

EXPANSION   OF   STEAM.  15 

The  hyperbolic  logarithm  of  any  number  can  be 
found  by  multiplying  the  common  logarithm  by 
2,30258509. 

From  the  nature  of  hyperbolic  logarithms  they  are 
thus  very  useful  in  working  steam  expansively. 

Let  the  Line  A,  B,  Fig.  5,  represent        Fl0-5- 
the  pressure  of  steam — which  we  will  as- 
sume to  be  unity — at  the  time  the  cut-off 
valve  closes ;  C,  D,  half  the  length  of  A,  * 
B,  and  the  line  A,  C,  a  hyperbolic  curve, 
.69-}-  from  the  table  gives  the  mean  length  A 
of  all  the  ordinates,  1,  2,  3,  4,  <fec.,  which 
before  we  had  to  arrive  at  by  approxima- 
tion.   If  the  cut-off  valve,  instead  of  closing 
at  half  stroke,  had  closed  at  some  other 
point,  say,  when  the  piston  had  traveled 
only  one-fourth  its  distance,  C,  D,  would  be  one-fourth 
of  «,  £,  and  the  curve  A,  C,  would  have  extended  from 
a  to  £,  giving  1.38-f-  as  a  mean  of  all  the  ordinates 
below  #,  b. 

All  we  require  then  in  working  examples  in  ex- 
pansion of  steam,  according  to  Marriotte's  law,  is  to 
know  the  initial  pressure  and  point  of  cutting  off,  from 
which  we  can  deduce  the  mean  pressure,  pressure, at 
the  end  of  the  stroke,  percentage  of  gain,  <fec.,  by 
having  before  us  a  table  of  hyperbolic  logarithms; 
but  if  it  be  required  to  make  such  calculations,  when  a 
table  of  this  kind  is  not  come-at-able,  it  can  be  done  in 
the  manner  we  have  previously  shown. 

EXAMPLE  1st.  Suppose  you  have  a  cylinder  in 
which  you  are  using  steam  of  20  pounds  pressure  per 
square  inch,  inclusive  of  the  atmosphere,  and  cut  off  at 
half  stroke,  what  is  the  mean  pressure,  pressure  at  the 
end  of  the  stroke,  and  per  centage  of  gain. 
2 


16  BACK   PEESSUEE. 

Ans.  1st.  From  the  foregoing  considerations  we 
know  that  had  the  pressure  of  steam  been  1  pound  in- 
stead of  20,  all  we  would  have  to  do  would  be  to  take 
.69314  out  of  the  table,  add  1  to  it  and  divide  by  2 ; 
therefore  to  find  the  mean  pressure  we  have  this  rule : 
As  the  number  of  times  the  steam  is  expanded,  is  to  the 
hyperbolic  logarithm  of  tliat  number  plus  1,  so  is  the 
initial  to  the  mean  pressure,  hence  2  :  1.69314 : :  20 : 
1 6.93 14lbs^  mean  pressures  J  ± 

Am.  2<7.  20-f-2  =  10  ll>s.  pressure  at  the  end  of  the 
stroke. 

Ans.  3d.  Work  performed  before  expansion,  1. 
after  expansion,  .69314.  Therefore  1:  .69314: :  100  : 
69.314  per  cent,  gain  by  cutting  off  at  half  stroke. 

BACK  PEESSUEE. 

Inasmuch  as  it  is  impossible  in  practice  to  obtain 
a  perfect  vacuum,  there  is  always  a  certain  amount  of 
steam  in  the  cylinder  opposed  to  the  motion  of  the 
piston,  and  this  is  termed  back  pressure.  Suppose  for 
example,  there  was  in  the  above  instance  4lbs.  per 
square  inch  back  pressure,  the  mean  effective,  or  un- 
balanced pressure,  would  be  16.9314—4=12.9314  Ibs., 
and  the  unbalanced  pressure  at  the  end  of  the  stroke 
would  be  10— 4=6  Ibs. 

EXAMPLE  2d.  Suppose  the  steam  in  example  1st 
had  been  cut  off  at  a  \  from  commencement  of  stroke, 
what  would  have  been  the  mean  pressure,  pressure  at 
the  end,  and  percentage  of  gain  in  that  case  ?  Also 
the  mean  unbalanced  pressure,  and  unbalanced  pressure 
at  the  end,  the  back  pressure  being  4  Ibs  per  square 
inch? 


BACK    PRESSURE.  17 

Ans.  1st.  4 :  2.38629 : :  20 : 11.93145  Ibs.  mean  pres- 
sure. 

Ans.  Id.  20  -f-  4  —  5  Ibs.  pressure  at  the  end. 

Ans.  3d.  1 : 1.38629  : :  100 : 138.629  per  cent. 

Ans.  Uh.  11.93145—4=7.93145  mean  unbalanced 
pressure. 

Ans.  5th.  5— 4  —  lib.  unbalanced  pressure  at  the 
end. 

It  is  useless  hereto  multiply  examples ;  those  already 
given  we  consider  sufficient  to  give  the  student  a  clear 
understanding  of  the  manner  in  which  these  calcula- 
tions are  made,  but  we  would  recommend  him  to  make 
a  number  of  others  for  himself,  and  work  them  out  so 
as  to  render  himself  the  more  familiar  and  ready  with 
the  modus  operandi. 

We  come  now  to  the  percentage  of  gain  of  fuel  by 
using  steam  expansively.  It  has  been  previously 
shown  that  when  the  steam  is  cut  off  at  one  half,  the 
work  done  before  expansion  takes  place  being  repre- 
sented by  1,  the  work  done  afterwards  is  .69 ;  the  total 
work  therefore  performed  is  1.69;  now  had  not  the 
cut-off  valve  closed  at  all,  the  total  work  performed 
would  have  been  2.  Hence  by  this  operation  we  have 
the  power  of  the  engine  reduced  from  2  to  1.69.  It  is 
therefore  necessary  to  increase  the  initial  pressure  of 
steam  to  make  up  this  decreased  power ;  and  keeping 
in  view  Marriotte's  law,  we  will  let  this  pressure  be 
represented  by  x  /  hence  2  : 1.69 : :  x :  .845  a?,  the  mean 
pressure.  It  is  manifest  that  the  mean  pressure  in  this 
case  must  be  the  same  as  if  the  ste'am  followed  full 
stroke,  in  order  that  the  powers  may  be  the  same; 
consequently 

.845  x  =  lib. 

x  =  1.18  Ib.  initial  pressure. 


18  GAIN   BY    EXPANDED    STEAM. 

But  only  half  a  cylinder  full  of  this  steam  is  used  to 
every  full  cylinder  of  the  other,  consequently  the  dif- 
ference between  1.18-f-2  and  1,  equals  the  saving, 
which  is  41  per  cent. 

To  ascertain  the  saving  of  steam  at  any  other  point 
of  cutting  off,  take  the  hyperbolic  log.  of  3r  4,  5,  6, 
<fec.  as  the  cutting-off  point  may  be  fa  £,  fa  fa  <fec.,  and 
proceed  in  the  same  manner,  or,  in  other  words,  divide 
the  whole  length  of  the  stroke  by  the  portion  traveled 
before  the  steam  is  cut  off;  take  the  hyperbolic  log.  of 
the  quotient  and  proceed  as  above. 

The  41  per  cent,  in  the  above  example,  is  the 
saving  in  steam — that  is  to  say,  should  a  steamer, 
using  steam  full  stroke,  perform  a  certain  distance 
in  a  certain  time,  cut  the  steam  off  at  half-stroke, 
and  increase  the  initial  pressure  in  the  ratio  of  1 
to  1.18,  she  would  perform  the  same  distance  in  the 
same  time  with  41  per  cent,  less  steam.  Not  41  per 
cent,  less  coals  put  into  the  furnaces,  but  41  per  cent, 
of  that  which  reaches  the  cylinders  minus  the  loss 
from  condensation  due  to  expansion,  i.  e.  that  por- 
tion of  the  fuel  not  combustible,  and  that  portion  pass- 
ing out  of  the  chimney  in  the  shape  of  heat  to  produce 
draft,  together  with  the  loss  from  radiation  and  con- 
densation before  the  steam  reachers  the  cylinders  must 
first  be  deducted.  When  this  is  done  it  will  be  found 
that  the  actual  saving  will  be  reduced  to  less  than  20 
per  cent.,  which  is  about  the  real  saving  of  fuel  in 
practice  cutting  off  at  half  stroke,  and  pro  rata  for  any 
other  point — varying  somewhat  according  to  better  or 
worse  constructions.  Any  engineer  can  satisfy  himself 
on  this  point  by  using  his  steam  with  and  without  ex- 
pansion for  a  sufficient  given  time,  carefully  weighing 
all  the  coals  and  recording  all  the  data. 


EXPANSION    VALVES. 


19 


This  should  not  therefore  be  confounded  with  the 
69  per  cent.,  which  is  theoretically  the  increased  work 
performed  by  the  same  steam  over  what  it  would  have 
performed  had  it  not  been  cut  off  at  all. 

EXPANSION  VALVES. 

There  are  a  variety  of  expansion  valves  and  arrange- 
ments for  cutting  off  steam ;  the  principles  operating 
the  more  important  of  which  we  will  now  proceed  to 
examine.  The  following  diagrams  or  sketches  will 
serve  our  purpose.  We  shall  simply  explain  the  lead- 
ing features  of  each,  in  order  to  give  an  understanding 
of  the  principles  that  govern  them,  leaving  the  student 
to  suggest  for  himself  the  Fig.  i. 

alterations  in  the  mechani- 
cal arrangement  to  adapt 
them  to  different  types 
and  arrangements  of  en- 
gines. 

Figure  1  is  a  diagram 
of  Sickel's  momentarily 
adjustable  cut-off,  in  which 
A,  A,  is  the  steam  valve 
of  the  double  poppet  con- 
struction ;  B,  B,  valve 
stem ;  C,  dash-pot,  filled 
with  water  up  to  the  line  d 
1,  2;  D,  plunger,  fitting 
in  the  dash-pot ;  E,  stuf- 
fing-box, which  is  packed 
air  and  water-tight;  a?, 
hole  in  the  bottom  of  the 
plunger  D,  to  allow  the 
water  to  enter  when  the  plunger  strikes  it;  £,  a 


20  EXPANSION   VALVES. 

rod  communicating  motion  to  the  wiper  F,  which 
trips  the  valve ;  k,  a  rod  receiving  motion  from  the 
air-pump  beam  or  any  other  part  having  motion  coin- 
cident with  that  of  the  piston.  The  motion  of  A  is 
communicated  through  the  vertical  rod,  having  c  as  a 
fixed  centre  to  &,  and  thence  to  the  wiper  F.  The 
manner  in  which  this  cut-off  operates  is  this:  The 
valve  stem,  instead  of  being  permanently  attached  to 
the  lifting  rod,  is  secured  to  it  by  a  clutch  and  spring. 
The  valve  is  lifted  by  the  eccentric,  (operating  as  in 
other  cases,)  but  before  it  reaches  its  seat  again,  the 
wiper  F,  which  vibrates  back  and  forth,  strikes  the 
clutch,  and  detaches  the  valve  from  the  lifter;  the 
valve  then,  from  the  action  of  gravity,  would  fall,  and 
strike  its  seat  with  a  heavy  blow ;  to  prevent  which, 
and  allow  the  valve  at  the  same  time  to  fall  quickly, 
it  is  attached  to  the  plunger  D,  working  in  the  dash- 
pot  C.  By  this  arrangement,  before  the  valve  reaches 
its  seat,  the  plunger  D  strikes  upon  the  water  in  the 
lower  part  of  the  dash-pot  C,  which  is  called  the  secon- 
dary reservoir,  and  thereby  allows  the  valve  to  close 
without  slamming,  the  water  escaping  into  the  cavity  a?, 
and  also  around  the  plunger,  into  the  upper  or  primary 
reservoir.  The  plunger  D,  being  hollow,  small  holes 
are  bored  into  it  in  the  vicinity  6f  the  line  1,  2,  to 
allow  the  water  to  escape  into  it  also. 

We  see  that  the  cutting-off  is  effected  by  the  wiper 
F  tripping  the  valve ;  the  sooner  therefore  the  valve 
is  tripped,  the  sooner  the  steam  will  be  cut  off.  Now 
the  manner  in  which  this  is  made  an  adjustable  cut-off, 
is  accomplished  by  moving  the  handle  f  backward  or 
forward  on  the  arc  </,  which  will  move  the  centre  c  to 
one  side  or  the  other  of  its  present  position,  the  center  e 
remaining  constantly  fixed,  and  therefore  giving  the 


EXPANSION   VALVES.  21 

wiper  F  a  greater  or  less  distance  to  travel  before 
striking  the  clutch.  By  this  means  the  cutting-off 
point  can  be  varied  for  any  part  of  the  stroke.  The 
handle /can  be  put  in  such  a  position  that  the  valve 
will  not  be  tripped  at  all,  or  it  can  be  placed  so  that 
the  valve  will  not  lift  at  all,  being  exactly  in  the  ver- 
tical position  when  the  lifter  commences  to  rise.  The 
engine  can  be  thus  stopped  by  this  cut-off.  For  the 
other  end  of  the  cylinder  there  is  another  dash-pot, 
<fec.,  similar  to  the  one  described,  the  wiper  being  ope- 
rated by  a  rod  similar  to  £,  attached  to  the  center  d. 

Should  there  be  too  much  water  in  the  dash-pot, 
the  valve  will  not  seat  quickly,  but "  hang,"  as  it  is 
technically  termed.  At  a  there  is  a  cock  for  the  pur- 
pose of  supplying  it  with  water.  Attached  to  the 
dash-pot,  there  is  usually  another  cock  or  valve  for 
the  purpose  of  letting  out  any  superfluous  water.  In- 
sufficient water  is  evidenced  by  the  slamming  of  the 
valve. 

This  cut-off  was  formerly  made  without  the  wiper 
F,  there  being  used  instead  a  sliding  cam,  shaped 
something  like  this  <1 .  As  the  valve  rose  up,  the 
clutch  struck  the  bevel  on  this  cam,  which  forced  the 
clutch  out  of  its  position,  and  allowed  the  valve  to  fall. 
With  this  arrangement,  however,  it  will  be  seen  that 
the  valve  must  trip  while  it  is  rising,  and  as  it  is  at  its 
highest  position  when  the  piston  is  about  half  stroke,  it 
cannot  be  possible  to  cut  off  by  this  mode  longer  than 
half  stroke ;  but  with  the  arrangement  of  the  wiper,  it 
will  be  seen,  inasmuch  as  it  vibrates  back  and  forth, 
that  the  valve  can  be  just  as  well  tripped  on  its  descent 
as  when  rising,  and  this  is  the  reason  why  it  was  sub- 
stituted for  the  cam. 

?;' — The  next  cut-off  that  we  shall  take 


22 


EXPANSION   VALVES. 


into  consideration  is  Stevens's,  a  diagram  of  which  is 
shown  in  figure  2.  A  A  are  the  steam  toes ;  B  B, 
the  steam-lifting  toes ;  D,  rock-shaft  arms ;  C  C,  the 
valves  ;  «,  pin  in  rock-shaft  FlG  2. 

arm  for  eccentric  hook.  The 
manner  in  which  this  is 
made  an  adjustable  cut-off, 
is  by  raising  or  lowering  the 
toes  A  A,  thereby  giving 
them  more  or  less  lost  mo- 
tion. In  the  position  in 
which  they  are  shown  in  the 
diagram,  it  will  be  seen  that 
they  will  have  to  travel  a 
considerable  distance  before 
touching  the  toes  B,  B,  and 
as  the  piston  is  in  motion 
during  this  time;  and  the 
steam  valve  closed,  the 
steam  will  be  acting  expan- 
sively. If  the  end  of  the  toes  A  A  be  dropped  lower 
down,  the  steam  will  be  cut  off  shorter ;  if  raised  higher 
up,  longer.  B^'  dropping  the  toes  down,  however,  we 
diminish  the  lift  of  the  valve,  and  also  alter  the  lead. 
To  retain  the  one,  we  raise  the  pin  a  in  the  rock -shaft 
arm,  and  the  other  we  turn  the  eccentric  a  little  ahead. 
To  alter  the  point  of  cut-off,  therefore,  while  the  engine 
is  in  motion,  so  as  to  cut  off  shorter,  we  have  first  to 
drop  the  toes  A  A,  then  raise  the  pin  «,  and  set  the  ec- 
centric ahead.  To  cut  off  longer,  reverse  the  operation. 
The  number  of  things  required  to  be  altered  in 
changing  the  point  of  cutting-off  is  a  very  great  objec- 
tion to  this  arrangement.  In  practice  it  has  seldom 
been  accomplished  without  stopping  the  engine. 


EXPANSION   VALVES. 


23 


Allen  and  Wells. — This  cut-off  is  represented  by 
sketch,  figure  3.  A,  A,  are  the  exhaust  toes ;  B  B, 
steam  toes;  C  C  lifting  toes ;  D  D,  the  valves  ;  E  E', 


FIG.  B. 


palls  fitted  to  the  end  of  the  toes  B,  B' ;  F,  rock-shaft 
arm,  which  is  operated  from  the  eccentric  in  the  usual 


24  SLIDE   CUT-OFFS. 

way ;  G  G,  a  cross  arm  secured  to  the  end  of  the  rock- 
shaft  arm ;  a  a,  rollers  on  the  end  of  the  cross-arm  G, 
G' ;  H  H,  two  arms  fitted  loosely  on  the  rock-shaft. 
These  arms  receive  their  motion  from  any  part  of  the 
engine  having  motion  nearly  coincident  with  that  of 
the  piston ;  1)  b',  rollers  on  these  arms.  This  cut-off 
operates  thus :  The  rock-shaft  is  put  in  motion  by  the 
eccentric.  The  pall  E  resting  upon  the  roller  #,  is 
raised,  and  with  it  the  toe  B,  and  lifter  toe  C ;  but 
after  the  pall  E  is  raised  up  so  as  to  clear  the  roller  £, 
the  pall  E  slides  in  on  top  of  #,  which,  having  a  down- 
ward motion,  lowers  the  valve,  while  the  rock-shaft 
arm  continues  to  rise.  The  rollers  b  b',  being  attached 
to  the  arms  H  H,  which  having  motion  nearly  coinci- 
dent with  that  of  the  piston,  start  to  go  down  at  nearly 
the  same  time  the  rock-shaft  arm  starts  to  rise.  Now 
then  by  turning  around  the  right  and  left-hand  screw 
c  Cj  the  rollers  b  b',  will  be  set  further  apart,  or  closer 
together,  and  will  therefore  alter  the  time  they  will 
clear  the  end  of  the  pall  E,  and  hence  the  point  of  cut- 
ting off.  To  follow  farther  separate  the  rollers  b  &', 
to  cut  off  shorter,  screw  them  closer  together.  In 
altering  the  point  of  cutting  off  we  have  nothing  to  do 
but  to  turn  around  the  screw  c  c. 

This  cut-off  is  like  "  Sickel's,"  momentarily  adjust- 
able, but  it  cannot,  however,  be  made  to  cut  off  quite 
so  short  as  "  Sickel's." 


SLIDE   CUT-OFFS. 

In  the  use  of  the  ordinary  three-ported  slide-valve, 
or  other  slide-valves  combining  both  the  steam  and 
exhaust,  the  expansive  principle  can  be  carried  only 
to  a  very  small  extent,  owing  to  the  derangement  of 


SLIDE    CUT-OFFS.  25 

the  exhaust  passages.  Suppose,  for  instance,  that  suffi- 
cient lap  be  given  to  the  steam  side  of  the  valve  to 
cause  the  steam  to  be  shut  off  at  half-stroke,  and  sup- 
pose the  same  amount  of  lap  be  given  also  to  the  ex- 
haust side,  it  is  manifest,  that  when  the  steam  is  shut 
off,  the  exhaust  will  be  shut  off  also,  and  the  pent  up 
steam,  therefore,  having  no  escape,  and  increasing  in 
pressure  as  the  piston  approaches  the  end  of  the  stroke, 
will  act  as  a  serious  retarding  force.  This  arrange- 
ment, therefore,  cannot  operate. 

Now,  then,  suppose  that  we  put  lap  on  the  steam 
side,  as  before,  but  none  on  the  exhaust,  in  which 
event  another  difficulty  equally  great  presents  itself. 
It  is  this : 

Supposing  the  valve,  Fig.  4,  to  have  neither  lap 
nor  lead,  when  the  end  a  arrives  at  a',  steam  will  just 
begin  to  be  admitted  into  the  cylinder,  but  the  point 


5,  at  the  same  time,  will  have  arrived  at  the  point  &', 
and  steam  just  begin  also  to  exhaust ;  now,  then,  let 
half  an  inch  be  *  added  to  each  end  of  the  valve  at  a 
and  £,  when  the  valve  begins  to  open  to  steam  in  this 
case,  0,  instead  of  being  at  a',  will  be  half  an  inch  past 
it ;  and,  as  there  has  been  no  lap  added  to  the  exhaust 
side,  b  will  be  half  an  inch  past  V,  so  that  the  exhaust 


26  SLIDE   CUT-OFFS. 

must  have  opened  considerably  before  the  piston  ar- 
rived at  the  end  of  the  stroke  ;  hence,  in  this  case,  we 
exhaust  too  soon. 

All  we  can  do,  therefore,  in  practice,  is  to  strike  a 
mean  between  these  evils ;  that  is  to  say,  when  we  add 
lap  to  the  steam  side,  add  lap  also  to  the  exhaust  side, 
but  not  so  much  so  that  we  open  the  exhaust  before 
the  piston  arrives  at  the  end,  and  close  it  again  before 
it  reaches  the  other  end.  The  shortest  this  kind  of 
valve  can  be  made  to  cut-off  to  advantage  in  practice, 
is  considered  about  J-  from  commencement  of  stroke ; 
but  even  this  we  consider  most  too  short  for  beneficial 
working  of  large  engines. 

Owing  to  these  confined  limits,  the  beneficial  re- 
sults obtainable  from  the  expansive  principle  by  this 
arrangement  is  very  small,  which  has  led  to  the  adop- 
tion of  an  independent  slide  cut-off  valve,  situated  on  a 
separate  face,  back  of  the  steam  valve,  as  shown  in 

FIG.  5, 


Fig.  5,  in  which  a'  is  the  steam,  and  b  b  the  cut-off 
valve.  The  valve  a  having  only  sufficient  lap  to  cover 
the  ports  a'  a'  fairly,  when  it  is  in  the  middle  of 
the  stroke,  operates  as  in  other  cases,  but  the  lap 
on  I  b  can  be  made  to  any  required  extent,  so  that 


SLIDE    CUT-OFFS.  27 

during  a  large  part  of  the  stroke  the  ports  l>*  V 
are  closed,  preventing  further  access  of  steam  to  the 
cylinder,  notwithstanding  the  steam  valve  itself  is 
open.  The  valve  b  b  is  operated  by  an  independent 
eccentric,  through  the  valve  stem  E.  In  the  position 
shown  in  the  figure  the  steam  is  cut  off  about  half 
stroke:  d'  shows  another  opening  covered  with  the 
valve  d,  having  a  stem  c  sliding  loosely  through  the 
valve  b  b  /  the  other  end  of  the  stem  passing  through 
the  chest,  has  a  handle  attached  to  it  for  the  purpose 
of  moving  the  valve  d,  in  order  to  open  the  port  d', 
when  the  engine  is  stopped.  This  is  necessary,  for  the 
reason  that  the  engine  may  stop  when  the  valve  b  b  is 
in  such  a  position  as  to  prevent  the  steam  from  enter- 
ing to  the  steam  valve  «,  and  the  engine  could  not, 
therefore,  be  started.  In  the  figure,  the  cut-off  valve 
has  but  two  ports  for  the  admission  of  steam,  but  any 
number  of  ports  can  be  made — the  more  numerous, 
the  less  stroke  will  be  required  to  get  the  necessary 
opening.  This  is  what  is  termed  the  gridiron  valve, 
from  the  resemblance  it  bears  to  that  very  useful  in- 
strument. 

After  this  valve  is  once  made,  the  point  of  cutting 
off  usually  remains  fixed,  but  it  can,  however,  be  varied 


within  narrow  limits  by  altering  the  stroke  of  the 
valve.  Thus,  in  Fig.  6,  supposing  the  end  of  the  valve 
stem  to  be  raised  from  a  to  £,  the  valve,  instead  of 


28  SLIDE   CUT-OFFS. 

being  closed,  as  shown,  will  be  open  the  distance  b  e, 
and  will  therefore  have  that  much  additional  to  travel 
before  the  steam  is  cut  off ;  hence,  by  increasing  the 
travel  of  the  valve  we  increase  the  point  of  cutting  off, 
and  conversely,  supposing  the  pin  a  had  been  lowered 
in  the  rock-shaft  arm  the  distance  a  e,  equal  to  a  &, 
the  ports,  instead  of  being  closed,  as  shown,  would 
be  closed  the  distance  b  cj  the  steam,  therefore,  would 
be  cut  off  sooner.  But  by  altering  the  point  of  cutting 
off  we  also  alter  the  lead  of  the  valve  ;  for,  taking  the 
case  in  which  we  increased  the  travel  of  the  valve,  we 
see  that  when  it  would  have  been  closed  with  the 
original  lead,  it  lacked  the  distance  b  c.  If  its  travel 
had  been  reduced,  it  would  have  lacked  that  much  of 
being  open.  To  obviate  this,  whenever  the  travel  of 
the  valve  is  altered,  the  eccentric  should  also  be  altered, 
so  as  to  retain  the  original  lead. 

If  the  travel  of  the  valve  be  made  too  great,  the 
valve  d  will  pass  entirely  over  the  port  d',  and  gradu- 
ally close  ^,  unless  they  be  set  some  distance  apart. 
If  the  travel  be  made  too  small,  the  steam  will  be  shut 
off,  and  the  motion  of  the  eccentric  being  reversed 
long  before  the  piston  arrives  at  the  end  of  the  stroke, 
steam  will  be  admitted  to  it  again  before  the  steam 
valve  closes. 

From  the  above  facts,  and  the  figure  before  us,  we 
draw  the  following  general  conclusions  in  reference  to 
this  kind  of  slide  cut-off  valves : 

That,  with  a  given  amount  of  lap,  the  cutting  off 
point  can  be  varied  from  the  longest  point  of  cutting 
off  allowable  by  said  lap,  to  a  certain  point  within  the 
stroke,  by  reducing  the  stroke  of  the  valve  and  alter- 
ing the  eccentric  so  as  to  retain  the  original  lead.  If 
the  stroke  be  reduced  beyond  this,  steam  will  be  shut 


SLIDE    CUT-OFFS. 


29 


off  and  given  to  the  piston  again  before  it  arrives  at 
the  end  of  the  stroke.  In  practice,  this  variation  will 
not  amount  to  more  than  from  about  -f  to  f  of  the 
stroke. 

In  altering  the  stroke  of  the  valve,  the  slot  through 
which  the  pin  a  moves  should  be  an  arc  of  a  circle, 
struck  with  a  radius  equal  to  the  length  of  the  link  d  a, 
and  with  d  as  a  centre. 

"With  equal  leads,  the  cutting  off  point  cannot  be 
effected  equally  on  both  ends  of  the  cylinder  with  a 
slide  valve,  owing  to  the  connecting  rod  acting  out  of 
parallelism,  or,  in  other  words,  owing  to  the  crank  not 
being  at  90°  when  the  piston  is  half  way.  The  shorter 
the  connecting  rod,  the  greater  the  discrepancy. 


CONNECTS  TO  CONDENSER 


Fig.  6£,  is  an  arrangement  of  cut-off  valve  as  con- 
structed by  Messrs.  Merrick  &,  Son,  of  Philadelphia, 
in  1855,  for  the  U.  S.  Steam  Frigate  "  Wabash." 

In  consequence  of  the  satisfactory  manner  in  which 
it  worked  on  board  that  vessel;  its  simplicity,  and 
easy  adjustment  for  cutting  off  at  any  portion  of  the 


30  OTHER   KIND    OF   VALVES. 

stroke  likely  to  be  required,  it  lias  been  applied  to 
nearly  all  the  U.  S.  Screw  ships  recently  constructed, 
as  also  to  a  number  of  other  engines.  C  is  the  steam 
valve ;  D  D  are  the  cut-off  valves,  attached  to  the  valve 
stem  E  by  right  and  left  hand  screws  working  in  nuts 
let  into  the  valves  ;  F  F,  rings  in  the  steam  chest  cover, 
fitting  close  down  on  the  back  of  the  main  steam  valve, 
enclosing  the  space  G,  which  is  connected  to  the  con- 
denser by  the  pipe  H,  for  the  purpose  of  balancing 
the  valve. 

This  cut-off  can  be  worked  by  a  separate  eccentric, 
or  from  any  part  of  the  engine  having  a  motion  coin- 
cident with  that  of  the  piston. 

To  alter  the  point  of  cutting-off,  a  wheel  is  on  the 
end  of  the  valve  stem  E,  which,  if  turned  in  one  direc- 
tion, will  draw  the  valves  closer  together,  .and  the 
openings  will  not  be  closed  so  soon,  consequently  the 
steam  will  follow  the  piston  farther,  i.  e.  cut  off  longer. 
To  cut  off  shorter,  the  operation  is  reversed. 

OTHEK   KESTD    OF   VALVES. 

Having  explained  the  principles  of  the  leading  cut- 
offs, we  will  now  take  a  glance  at  some  of  the  most 
prominent  steam  and  exhaust  valves  now  in  use ;  but, 
inasmuch  as  the  student  is  supposed  to  understand  the 
leading  features  of  most  of  these,  we  will  not  devote 
much  time  to  this  part  of  our  study. 

Figure  7  is  a  diagram  of  a  double  poppet  valve, 
in  which  the  rectangular  space,  a  b  c  d  is  the  open- 
ing to  the  cylinder ;  A  B,  the  steam  valves,  and  C  D, 
the  exhaust  valves.  The  object  of  this  arrangement  is 
to  make  the  valve  a  balance  valve.  Thus  the  steam 
acting  on  the  top  of  A  and  bottom  of  B,  if  they  were 


OTHER   KIND   OF   VALVES. 


31 


of  equal  size,  an  equilibrium  would  be  established,  but 
the  valve  B  is  made  just  small  enough  to  slip  through 


Fie.  7. 


the  upper  seat,  so  that  the  difference  in  area  serves  to 
keep  the  valves  fairly  in  their  seats.*  On  the  exhaust 
side  the  reverse  is  the  case.  The  steam  acts  under  C, 
and  on  top  of  D,  the  lower  valve  D  is  usually  made 
the  larger.  In  order  to  get  D  into  its  place,  the  upper 
seat  is  either  made  removable  by  being  secured  in  its 
place  by  tap-bolts,  or  a  hand-hole  is  cut  in  the  side  of 
the  steam-chest,  or,  in  some  cases,  it  is  passed  in  through 
the  cylinder  nozzle. 

Figure  8  is  a  diagram  of  the  single  poppet  valve, 
in  which  A  is  the  steam  valve,  and  B,  the  exhaust. 
With  these  kinds  of 
valves  we  see  that  we 
require  considerable 
power  to  operate 
them  by  hand,  as  we 
have  the  full  pressure 
of  steam  on  the  back 
of  A,  and  also  the 
exhaust  on  B;  but 
when  the  engine  is  hooked  on  the  pressure  is  in  part 
balanced.  On  the  steam  valve  this  is  occasioned  at 
the  time  the  valve  is  opened,  by  the  exhaust  valve 


FIG.  8. 


*  In  some  cases,  the  : 

3 


i  of  the  valves  are  equal,  aud  they  are  seated  by  their  own  weight. 


32 


OTHEE    KIND    OF   VALVES. 


being  closed  before  the  piston  arrives  at  the  end  of  the 
stroke,  producing  the  pressure  called  cushion.  And 
on  the  exhaust  valve  the  pressure  is  reduced  (at  the 
time  the  valve  is  opened)  by  expansion.  In  some 
cases  this  pressure  is  but  little  above  that  in  the  con- 
denser. It  is  therefore  obvious  that  these  valves  can 
be  made  to  work  with  but  little  power  from  the  engine. 
They  also  have  the  advantage  of  being  easily  made 
tight  and  occupying  but  little  room. 

The  disadvantage  of  working  by  hand,  however, 
led  to  the  adoption  of  the  double  poppet  valve,  the 
single  poppet  being  the  earlier  invention.  The  double 
poppet  valve  is  the  one  now  almost  universally  used  in 
American  low-pressure  river,  or  marine  paddle-wheel 
engines. 

Figure  9  is  a  representation  of  what  is  termed 
"  Hornblower's  "  valve,  in  which  a  a  b  b  are  the  valve 


seats;  A  A,  the  valve;  B,  one  of  a  number  of  cross- 
bars secured  to  the  top  of  the  valve,  to  which  the 


OTHER   KIND    OF   VALVES. 


33 


valve  stem  is  attached.  Prom  the  figure  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  only  surface  the  steam  has  to  act  upon 
to  keep  the  valve  in  its  seat,  is  the  upper  edge,  c  c,  of 
the  valve  ;  it  is  therefore  an  equilibrium  valve. 

Figure  10  is  what  is  termed  a  box  valve;    a  a 
are  the  parts  communicating   with  the   cylinder;  #, 


FIG.  10. 


steam-pipe ;  <?,  the  exhaust ;  A  A,  the  valve  having  an 
opening  through  its  center  communicating  with  the 
exhaust,  c  •  d  d,  packing.  An  inspection  of  the  figure 
will  show  the  operation  of  the  valve.  The  object  of 
this  kind  of  valve  is  also  to  establish  an  equilibrium. 
Figure  11  is  a  longitudinal  section,  and  figure  12 


FIG.  11 


X""~~fi)  CONNECTS 
/   /'CONDENSER 


a  top  view  of  what  is  termed  the  equilibrium  slide. 


34 


OTHER   KDO)    OF   VALVES. 


This  valve  has  a  ring,  A  A,  on  the  back  of  it,  which 
being  made  steam  tight,  the 
pressure  is  taken  off  the  space 
enclosed  by  the  ring.  The  pres- 
sure is  taken  off  the  back  of 
nearly  all  the  valves  of  large  en- 
gines now-a-days,  fitted  with  the 
short  slide,  either  in  this  way  or 
by  having  the  ring  secured  to 
the  top  of  the  chest,  and  the  valve  sliding  under  it. 

Figure  13  shows    a   slide  valve  A  A  A,  having 
openings  b  I  through  it  for  the  admission  of  steam ; 


a  a  a  is  another  valve  sliding  on  the  back  of  the 
valve  A  A  A;  a  a  a  is  the  cut-off,  which  operates 
thus :  The  valve  A  A  A  being  put  in  motion,  and 
the  cut-off  valve  lying  loosely  on  its  back,  is  carried 
with  it  until  the  end  of  the  valve  «,  #,  #,  strikes  the 
steam  chest,  when  its  motion  is  arrested,  while  the 
steam  valve  continues  to  move,  the  result  is  the  clos- 
ing the  opening  £,  and  the  cutting  off  the  steam.  The 
sooner,  therefore,  the  slide  a  a  a  strikes  the  chest,  the 
sooner  the  steam  is  cut  off.  The  point  of  cutting-off 
can  be  varied  by  having  a  screw  running  through  the 


OTHEE   KENT)    OF   VALVES. 


35 


chest,  which  can  be  moved  further   in  or  out  and 
against  which  the  valve  a  a  a  strikes.  Flg-14- 

With  this  arrangement  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  cut-off  must  close  at  further- 
est  a  little  before  the  piston  arrives  at 
half  stroke,  or  not  close  at  all.  This 
cut-off  is  applicable  to  horizontal  sta- 
tionary engines. 

Fig.  1 4  is  a  piston  valve,  in  which 
a  a'  are  the  openings  into  the  cylin- 
der ;  C,  exhaust  opening ;  A  B  I)  E 
the  valve  packed  at  b  c  d  e  with 
rings  or  other  packing.  In  the  position 
shown  in  the  figure,  steam  is  being 
exhausted  through  the  openings  a' 
and  C  into  the  condenser,  while  steam 
is  being  admitted  into  the  opposite 
end  of  the  cylinder  through  the  open- 
ing a.  When  the  valve  has  its  full 
throw  in  the  opposite  direction,  steam 
will  be  admitted  through  the  opening 
a'  while  it  is  being  exhausted  through 
«,  and  the  opening  F  F  through  the 
valve  and  through  C  into  the  con- 
denser. 


36  OTHER   KESTD    OF   VALVES. 

Figure  15  shows  the  long  D  slide,  with  the  full 


FIG.  15. 


opening  for  steam  under  the  piston;  Fig.  16,  same 


valve  showing  full  opening  for  steam  on  top  of  the 
piston ;  Fig.  17,  longitudinal  section  of  the  valve  alone, 


Fio.  17. 


and  Fig.  18,  cross  section  of  the  same.  A  is  the  steam 
pipe,  B,  the  exhaust,  C,  packing  to  keep  the  steam  and 
exhaust  separate,  steam  being  admitted  into  the  chest 
or  valve  casing  at  A,  fills  the  vacant  space  under  and 
around  the  valve,  but  cannot  escape  past  the  ends 


OTHER   KIND    OF   VALVES. 


37 


FIG.  19 


owing  to  the  packing  C  C  ;  and,  when  the  valve  is 
placed  in  the  position  shown  in  Fig.  15,  steam  is  ad- 
mitted under  the  piston  in  the  direction  shown  by  the 
arrows,"  at  the  same  time  that  it  is  exhausted  through 
the  upper  opening,  and  —  the  valve  being  hollow  — 
through  it  and  pipe  B  into  the  condenser.  When  the 
valve  is  moved  in  the  opposite  direction,  steam  is  ad- 
mitted above  the  piston  in  the  direction  shown  by  the 
arrows  in  Fig.  16,  and  exhausted 
through  the  lower  opening  directly 
through  the  pipe  B  to  the  condenser. 

This  style  of  valve  is  in  extensive 
use  on  English  marine,  and  other 
engines.  The  objection  to  it  is  the 
friction,  requiring  several  men  to 
work  the  starting  bar  when  the  en- 
gine is  operated  by  hand. 

Fig.  19  is  a  longitudinal  section 
of  the  short  D  slide,  and  Fig.  20,  an 
end  view  of  the  same.  A  A'  are  the 
^penings  into  the  cylinder  ;  B  B,  the 
communications  to  the  condenser  ;  C, 
steam  pipe.  In  the  position  shown 
in  the  figure,  steam  is  being  admitted 
through  A  into  the  cylinder,  and  ex- 
hausted through  A'  into  the  con- 
denser, c  c  is  packing  on  the  back  of 
the  valve. 


Fio.  20. 


412139 


38 


OTHER   KIND    OF   VALVES. 


FACE 


Figure  21  is  a  view  of  the  Worthington  pump 

steam  valve;  figure 
22,  the  valve  face, 
and  figure  23,  the 
valve  seat.  The  fig- 
ures explain  them- 
selves. In  the  or- 
HJ  dinary  slide  valve, 
when  it  is  moved 
in  one  direction, 
steam  is  given  to 
the  piston  in  the 
same  direction,  but 
the  object  of  this 
valve,  as  invented 
by  H.  R  Worth- 
~j  ington,  of  N.  York, 
is  to  cause  it,  when 
moved  in  one  direc- 
tion, to  give  steam 
~1  to  the  piston  in  the 

1—1 opposite    direction. 

The  valve  being  operated  by  an  arm  projecting  from 
the  piston  rod,  which  strikes  collars  on  the  valve  stem, 
renders  it  necessary  that  when  the  valve  is  moved  in 
one  direction,  steam  should  be  given  to  the  piston  in 
the  opposite  direction,  in  order  to  reverse  its  motion ; 
by  this  arrangement  the  intervention  of  levers  is  un- 
necessary, as  the  end  is  accomplished  direct. 


FIG.  23. 


. 


SEAT 


THE   PITTSBURG    CAM. 


FIG.  24. 


e 


The  Pittslwrg  Cam. — Figures  24,  25,  and  26,  show 
different  forms  of  this 
cam.  Like  letters  refer 
to  like  parts.  A  B  C  D 
is  a  yoke  fitting  over  the 
cam  a  b  c  j  E  is  a  rod 
attached  to  the  valve 
stem.  F,  main  shaft  of 
the  engine  to  which  the 
cam  is  secured.  It  will 
be  seen  that  by  the  revo- 
lution of  the  cam  a  b  c, 
within  the  yoke  ABC 
D,  the  rod  E  will  be 
caused  to  move  back  and 
forth,  and  thereby  open 
and  shut  the  valve. 

Fig.  24  is  a  cam  made 
to  cut  off  at  half  stroke ; 
figure  26,  i  stroke,  and 
figure  25  follows  full 
stroke.  The  manner  in 
which  these  cams  are 
laid  off  is  this.  From 
the  centre  F,  with  a  ra- 
dius dependent  upon  the 
stroke  of  the  valve,  de- 
scribe a  circle,  as  shown 
partly  in  dots  and  partly 
in  full  lines  in  the  fig- 
ures ;  divide  this  circle 
into  any  convenient  even 
number  of  equal  parts, 
say  sixteen ;  then,  supposing  we  wish  to  cut  off  at  half 


Fio.  28. 


40  OTHER    KIND    OF   VALVES. 

stroke,  taking  figure  24,  place  one  foot  of  the  dividers 
having  a  radius  equal  to  the  diameter  of  the  circle  at 
C  ^rand  describe  the  arc  terminating  at  #,  then  move 
the  foot  of  the  dividers  from  c  to  a,  and  describe 
another  arc  terminating  also  at  b  ;  then,  with  the  same 
radius,  and  b  as  a  centre,  describe  the  arc  a  c;  the 
figure  thus  enclosed  will  be  the  required  cam.  It  will 
be  observed  that,  while  the  cam  is  traveling  the  dis- 
tance a  1 — that  being  an  arc  of  a  true  circle — no  mo- 
tion can  be  given  to  the  valve,  but  while  it  travels 
from  1  to  2  the  valve  is  opened  and  shut.  Now,  then, 
inasmuch  as  the  piston  moves  from  one  end  of  the  cyl- 
inder to  the  other  for  each  semi-revolution  of  the  cam, 
and  inasmuch  as  the  distance  from  a  to  1  is  the  same 
as  from  1  to  2,  the  valve  remains  necessarily  closed 
during  one-half  of  the  stroke. 

In  figure  25,  as  no  part  of  the  outline  of  the  cam  is 
concentric  to  the  shaft  F,  the  valve  must  be  in  motion, 
all  the  time  the  cam  is  in  motion.  In  figure  26,  as 
three-quarters  of  the 'semi-periphery  of  the  cam  is  con- 
centric to  the  shaft  F,  the  valve  will  remain  closed 
during  three-quarters  of  the  stroke.  Instead  of  making 
the  points  b  sharp,  as  shown  in  the  figures,  they  can  be 
turned  off,  and,  to  retain  the  same  dimensions  on  the 
cam,  an  equal  amount  added  to  the  arc  a  c.  Thus, 
taking  figure  25,  suppose  we  cut  off  the  point  of  the 
cam  to  x  y,  and  increase  the  lower  extremity  to  H  I, 
this  will  not  alter  the  point  of  cutting  off,  but  it  re- 
duces the  travel  of  the  valve,  and  has  the  effect  of 
keeping  the  valve  stationary  when  wide  open,  while 
the  cam  travels  through  the  arc  x  y. 


CHAPTER  II. 

THE   INDICATOR   AND   INDICATOR   DIAGRAMS. 

THE  steam  engine  indicator  is  an  instrument  used 
for  the  purpose  of  exhibiting  the  performance  of  the 
steam  engine.  By  its  application  to  the  steam  cylinder 
we  can  ascertain  the  following  particulars:  Whether 
the  valves  are  properly  constructed  and  set ;  steam  and 
exhaust  passages  of  the  right  size ;  whether  the  piston 
or  valves  leak ;  the  amount  of  vacuum  or  back  pres- 
sure, and  pressure  of  steam  upon  the  piston ;  the  power 
of  the  engine ;  power  required  to  overcome  its  friction, 
and  also  to  work  any  machinery  attached  to  the  same, 
&c.  In  truth,  it  is  the  stethoscope  of  the  physician, 
revealing  the  internal  working  of  the  engine. 

The  following  description  of  the  instrument  and  cut, 
Fig.  27,  we  take  from  Paul  Stillman's  Treatise  on  the 
Indicator.  The  cut  shows  the  style  manufactured  at 
the  Novelty  Iron  Works,  New  York  city : 

A  is  a  brass  case  enclosing  a  cylinder,  into  which  a 
piston  is  nicely  fitted.  To  the  piston-rod  a  spiral 
spring  is  attached  to  resist  the  steam  and  vacuum 
when  acting  against  it.  B  is  a  pencil  attached  to  the 
piston  rod.  C  is  an  arm  attached  to  the  case,  and  sup- 
porting a  cylinder  D,  which  may  be  caused  to  rotate 
back  and  forth — a  part  of  a  revolution  in  one  direc- 
tion, by  means  of  a  line  or  cord  e,  attached  to  a  suit- 
able part  of  the  engine — and  in  the  other  by  means  of 


42 


THE   INDICATOR    AND    INDICATOR   DIAGRAMS 


Outside 


a  strong  watch  spring  within  the  cylinder  D. 
this  cylinder  is  to  be  wound  a  FlG.  2 

paper,  upon  which  a  diagram 
will  be  made,  by  the  combined 
action  of  the  piston  and  paper 
cylinder,  representing,  by  its 
area,  the  power  exerted  on  one 
side  of  the  piston  during  the 
whole  revolution  of  the  engine, 
//are  springs  to  secure  the  paper 
to  the  cylinder ;  g  is  a  scale 
divided  into  parts  corresponding 
to  the  pounds  of  pressure  on  the 
square  inch.  These  divisions, 
for  convenience  of  measuring  the 
diagrams  with  a  common  rule, 
are  generally  made  in  some  re- 
gular parts  of  an  inch,  as  8ths, 
lOths,  12ths,  20ths,  30ths ;  Ji  is 
a  cock  by  means  of  and  through 
which  it  is  connected  with  the 
engine  cylinder. 


HOW  TO  ATTACH  THE  INDICATOR. 

Into  whatever  part  of  the 
engine  it  may  be  desired  to  ap- 
ply the  indicator,  there  must 
first  be  inserted  a  small  stop-cock,  with  a  socket  to 
receive  the  one  connected  with  the  indicator.  The 
instrument  is  to  be  set  into  this  in  such  a  position  that 
the  line  attached  to  the  paper  cylinder  shall  lead 
through  or  over  the  guide  pulley  toward  the  place 
whence  it  is  to  receive  its  motion.  An  extension  of 
this  line  should  be  connected  with  some  part  of  the 


THE   INDICATOR   AND    INDICATOR    DIAGRAMS.  43 

engine,  the  motion  of  which  is  coincident  with  that  of 
the  piston,  and  which  would  give  the  paper  cylinder  a 
motion  of  about  three-fourths  of  a  revolution.  If  the 
engine  is  of  the  construction  denominated  beam  or 
lever  engine,  and  is  provided  with  a  "  parallel  motion  " 
the  parallel  bar,  or  a  pulley  on  the  radius  shaft,  fur- 
nishes the  proper  motion;  if  otherwise,  the  beam 
centre  may  be  resorted  to.  In  the  kind  denominated 
square  engines,  the  centre  of  the  air  pump  gives  it.  In 
horizontal  and  vertical  direct  acting  engines,  it  will 
frequently  be  found  necessary  to  erect  a  temporary 
rock-shaft,  or  lever,  connected  with  the  cross-head. 
Particular  care  should  be  taken,  when  the  power  of  the 
engine  is  to  be  estimated,  that  the  motion  communi- 
cated be  perfectly  coincident  with  that  of  the  piston. 

In  nearly  all  forms  of  the  steam  engine,  the  proper 
motion  may  be  obtained  by  attaching  a  line  to  the 
cross-head,  and  passing  it  over  a  delicately  constructed 
pulley,  to  the  axis  of  which  should  be  attached  a 
smaller  one,  from  which  a  line  shall  connect  with  the 
indicator.  The  proportional  sizes  of  the  two  pulleys, 
of  course,  should  be  as  the  distance  traveled  by  the 
piston  to  the  length  of  motion  given  to  the  paper 
cylinder  of  the  indicator.  It  will  be  necessary  to  at- 
tach a  strong  spring  to  the  axis  of  these  pulleys,  to 
produce  the  reverse  motion  promptly.  In  an  oscillat- 
ing engine,  it  will  be  necessary  that  the  indicator,  with 
its  fixtures,  should  be  attached  to  the  cylinder. 

As  the  paper  cylinder  cannot  make  more  than 
about  three-fourths  of  a  revolution  without  disturbing 
the  point  of  the  pencil,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  line 
communicating  the  motion  must  be  of  a  definite  length. 
It  also  require?  to  be  readily  connected  and  discon- 
nected. 


44         THE   INDICATOR   AND   INDICATOR    DIAGRAMS. 

The  indicator  having  been  attached  to  the  steam 
cylinder,  the  paper  secured  smoothly  on  the  cylinder 
D,  figure  27,  and  the  length  of  the  line  e  being  ad- 
justed so  that  by  the  vibration  of  D  it  does  not  strike 
the  stops,  we  will  proceed  to  take  a  diagram,  first 
taking  care  to  see  that  the  paper  cylinder  D  is  so  fixed 
that  the  springs  ff  do  not  come  in  contact  with  the 
pencil  B.  The  pencil  B  being  adjusted  so  that  it 
touches  lightly  on  the  paper,  throw  it  back  and  attach 
the  hook  on  the  line  E  to  the  line  receiving  motion 
from  the  engine ;  then  open  the  cock  A,  and  allow  the 
piston  to  work  up  and  down  several  times,  in  order  to 
heat  and  expand  all  the  parts  of  the  instrument.  This 
being  accomplished,  turn  the  pencil  on  and  take  the 
diagram.  Shut  off  the  cock  A,  and  apply  the  pencil 
again  to  the  paper,  and  it  will  describe  the  atmospheric 
line. 

Figure  28  is  a  diagram  taken  from  the  U.  S.  S. 


10)  204.5 

20.45  Ibs.  mean  unbalanced  pressure. 


THE   INDICATOR    AISTD    INDICATOR    DIAGRAMS.  45 

Frigate  "  Powhatan,"  fitted  with  the  double-poppet 
balanced  valves,  and  Sickels'  cut-off,  on  the  15th  of 
January,  1854,  while  on  the  passage  from  Hong  Kong, 
China,  to  the  Loo-Choo  Islands.  At  #,  the  piston  of 
the  indicator  being  at  the  bottom  of  its  stroke,  steam 
is  admitted,  forcing  it  up  to  b  •  at  b  the  cylinder  upon 
which  the  paper  is  wound — having  motion  coincident 
with  that  of  the  steam  piston — starts  to  turn,  describ- 
ing the  line  be;  at  c  the  expansion  valve  closes,  and 
the  pressure  therefore  gradually  falls  to  </,  where  the 
exhaust  valve  opens  and  the  pressure  falls  suddenly  to 
e;  the  steam  piston  now  starts  on  the  return  stroke, 
and  the  spring  within  the  cylinder  D,  fig.  27,  forces  it 
back  to  the  beginning  a  of  the  diagram.  The  line 
from  a  to  b  is  called  the  receiving  line  ;  from  b  to  c  the 
steam  line ;  from  c  to  <£,  the  expansion  line ;  d  to  0,  the 
exhaust ;  e  to  «,  the  vacuum  line.  The  numbers  in 
the  vertical  column  on  the  right-hand  side  of  the  figure, 
are  the  pounds  pressure  ;  14.7  is  the  true  vacuum  line, 
0,  the  atmospheric  line,  and  14,  the  initial  pressure  of 
steam  above  the  atmosphere.  The  figures  along  the 
top  line  are  the  feet  in  length  of  the  cylinder.  It  will 
be  seen  that  the  cut-off  valve  closed  when  the  piston 
had  traveled  a  very  little  beyond  half  stroke.  The 
rounding  at  d  and  a  is  the  lead  and  cushion  on  the 
exhaust.  That  is  to  say,  the  exhaust  valve  opened  at 
d,  before  the  piston  arrived  at  the  end  of  the  stroke, 
and  it  also  closed  again  at  #,  before  the  piston  reached 
the  other  end  of  the  stroke.  Had  there  been  no  lead 
both  of  these  corners  would  have  been  well  defined. 

In  order  to  calculate  the  power  of  the  engine,  the 
mean  pressure  on  the  piston  must  be  known,  and  from 
no  source  but  the  indicator  can  it  be  accurately  ascer- 
tained. The  manner  of  arriving  at  this  is  simply  by 


46  INDICATOR   DIAGRAMS. 

taking  the  total  pressure  at  different  points  and  addin:; 
them  up  and  taking  the  mean,  as  shown  in  fig.  28. 

Figure  28  is  what  would  be  termed  among  en- 
gineers a  good  diagram ;  so  is  also  figure  29,  which  we 
will  take  for  a  further  elucidation  of  the  subject. 

FIG.  29. 

Steam, 10  "  Powhatan  "  stb.  cylinder,  bottom 

Vacuum, 27  Nov.  7,  1855,  10  A.  M. 

Hot  well, 106  Fahr.  One  engine  and  one  wheel  in 

Revolutions,....       9.5  operation. 

Throttle, 8.  Smooth  sea. 


ATMOSPHERIC    LIME 


/ 

i 
/ 

I  . 
I  / 
I/ 

A 


:.* 


It  appears  from  this  diagram,  however,  that  the 
piston  of  the  indicator  worked  rather  tightly,  which 
occasioned  it  to  stick  a  little  in  some  places,  as  is  evi- 
denced by  the  steps  in  the  expansion  line,  and  also  at 
a  b  in  the  vacuum  line.  If  the  piston  of  the  indicator 
become  much  scratched,  similar  effects  will  be  produced. 
Great  care  should,  therefore,  be  taken  in  its  use,  to  see 
that  neither  the  piston  works  too  tightly  nor  too  loose- 
ly ;  for  on  the  one  hand  it  will  stick,  and  thereby  pro- 
duce an  imperfect  outline,  and  on  the  other  hand  will 
produce  the  same  effect  by  exhibiting  false  vacuum  and 
expansion  lines. 


INDICATOR    DIAGRAMS.  47 

Should  figure  29,  instead  of  being  as  shown  in  full 
lines,  have  the  lower  light  hand  corner  cut  off  as  shown 
in  dots  at  c  d,  the  defect  would  have  been  that  the  ex- 
haust valve  closed  too  soon — at  c  instead  of  e — occa- 
sioning excessive  cushioning.  With  some  engines, 
however,  a  large  amount  of  cushioning  is  necessary  to 
prevent  them  from  thumping  on  the  centres. 

Had  the  upper  right-hand  corner  been  rounding,  as 
shown  by  the  dotted  line  f  g,  the  defect  would  have 
been  that  the  steam  valve  opened  too  late.  Had  the 
exhaust  corner  been  cut  off,  as  shown  by  the  dotted 
lines  Ji  i,  the  exhaust  valve  would  have  opened  too 
soon  ;  but  had  it  been  in  the  form  shown  by  the  dot- 
ted line  k  I,  it  would  have  opened  too  late,  and  after  it 
did  commence  to  open,  would  move  with  too  slow  a 
velocity,  preventing  the  free  escape  of  steam,  or  the 
exhaust  passages  would  have  been  too  small,  which 
would  produce  a  similar  effect  to  the  valve  opening  too 
slowly.  Had  the  steam  line,  instead  of  being  parallel 
to  the  atmospheric  line,  fallen  down  in  the  direction 
m  n,  it  would  have  shown  that  the  throttle  was  par- 
tially closed,  or  the  steam  passages  too  small,  prevent- 
ing the  full  flow  of  steam  into  the  cylinder. 

Should  there  be  excessive  lead  given  to  the  steam 
valve,  the  line  d  m,  instead  of  being  at  right  angles  to 
the  atmospheric  line,  will  have  the  top  inclined!  to  the 
right  as  from  L  to  M. 

In  taking  a  diagram  for  the  purpose  of  estimating 
the  power  of  the  engine  only,  the  atmospheric  line  is 
not  necessary ;  but  in  order  to  ascertain  the  vacuum 
it  cannot  be  dispensed  with,  unless  the  indicator  piston 
be  forced  down  to  the  perfect  vacuum  and  held  there 
until  that  line  be  described. 

In  a  diagram  taken  from  a  non-condensing  engine, 
4 


48  INDICATOR   DIAGEAMS. 

the  atmospheric  line  will  of  course  be  entirely  below 
it,  owing  to  the  back  pressure  occasioned  from  the 
passage  of ,  the  exhaust  steam  through  the  openings 
and  pipes.  Had  figure  29  been  taken  from  a  non-con- 
densing engine,  A  B  would  have  been  the  atmospheric 
line. 

Figure  30  we  have  copied  from  Main  and  Brown's 
Treatise  on  the  Indicator  and  Dynamometer.     It  was 


taken  from  an  engine  fitted  with  the  long  D  slide. 
There  are  two  defects  exhibited  in  this  diagram ;  the 
steam  communication  is  opened  too  late  and  the  ex- 
haust too  soon.  At  C  the  exhaust  closes,  causing  the 
steam  to  be  compressed  to  O,  when  the  piston  having 
arrived  at  the  end  of  the  stroke  starts  on  its  return, 
and  the  pressure  falls  to  O' ;  at  O'  steam  is  admitted, 
causing  the  line  O'  A  to  be  traced  ;  at  B  the  exhaust 
opens  long  before  the  piston  arrives  at  the  end  of  the 
stroke,  allowing,  the  steam  to  escape  too  soon.  The 
hook,  as  shown  at  O,  would  only  be  made  in  very 
aggravated  cases,  where  the  steam  is  very  much  be- 
hind time. 


INDICATOR   DIAGRAMS. 


49 


Fig.  31  is  obtained  from  the  same  source  as  figure 
30.     In  this  case  the  engine  was  working  as  a  non- 


condensing  engine  with  a  very  low  pressure  of  steam. 
The  exhaust  closes  at  A,  causing  the  pent-up  steam  to 
be   compressed  to  B,  where  the  steam  valve  opens, 
and  the  pressure  in  the  cylinder  being  greater  than 
that  in  the  boiler,  immediately  falls  to  C.     The  hook  | 
at  C  is  occasioned  by  the  momentum  of  the  indicator  \ 
piston.    At  D  the  cut-off  closes,  causing  the  steam  to  be 
expanded  to  E,  below  the   atmosphere.      At  E  the  , 
exhaust  valve  opens  and  the  pressure  rises  up  equal  to  I 
the  back  pressure,  causing  the  loop  on  that  corner  of 
the  diagram. 

Figure  32  is  a  diagram  drawn  from  memory,  from 
one  of  a  non-condensing  Fw.  82. 

engine  that  was  once 
shown  the  author,  with 
the  request  that  he 
point  out  the  defect  in 
the  engine  from  which 
such  a  diagram  was 
taken.  At  first  we  did 
not  see  any  reason  why 
the  pressure  should  rise  from  b  to  c,  for  supposing  the 
exhaust  to  open  at  3,  there  could  be  no  reason  why 
the  pressure  should  rise  beyond  d,  the  amount  of  back 
pressure  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  piston.  After 
looking  at  it  a  little  closer,  however,  it  occurred  to  us 


50 


IXDICATOK   DIAGRAMS. 


that  such  a  diagram  could  be  formed  from  a  slide  valve 
engine,  and  in  this  manner :  Steam  being  admitted  in 
the  usual  way  until  the  piston  arrived  at  «,  the  inde- 
pendent slide  cut  off  the  steam,  whence  it  was  expanded 
to  the  point  b  •  at  b — the  steam  valve  having  neither 
lap  nor  lead,  and  consequently  still  open — the  cut-off 
again  opened  the  communication  with  the  cylinder, 
admitting  fresh  steam,  which  caused  the  line  b  c  to  be 
traced,  partaking  of  the  motion  of  the  steam  and  piston. 
At  c  the  steam  is  shut  off  by  the  steam  valve  itself, 
and  the  exhaust  opened,  the  pressure  therefore  falls 
from  that  point  to  d,  and  the  exhaust  line  is  traced. 
In  a  non-condensing  engine  diagram,  where  of  course 
there  can  be  no  vacuum  line,  the  line  from  c  to  e  in- 
clusive is  termed  the  exhaust. 

Apeyfect  Diagram. — According  to  the  law  laid 
down  by  Marriotte,  which  we  have  previously  studied 
under  the  head  of  expansion  of  steam,  the  expansion 
curve  of  an  indicator  diagram  should  be  a  true  hyper- 


B        i 


bolic  curve,  were  there  no  extraneous  circumstances  to 
cause  it  to  be  otherwise  ;  but  unfortunately  in  practice 
this  perfection  is  not  attainable  were  Marriotte's  law 


INDICATOR   DIAGRAMS.  51 

literally  true,  owing  to  the  time  required  for  steam  to 
enter  and  leave  the  cylinder  clearance  of  piston,  space 
in  nozzles  between  the  valves,  leakage  of  valves,  piston 
condensation  in  the  cylinder,  <fcc.  Fig.  33  is  intended 
to  show  a  perfect  diagram,  having  all  the  corners  "well 
denned  and  the  expansion  line  a  true  hyperbolic  curve. 
From  this  figure  we  purpose  explaining  the  manner  of 
laying  out  a  true  hyberbolic  curve.  Let  A  E  be  the 
true  vacuum  line,  and  B  C  the  steam  line.  Divide 
A  E  into  any  number  of  equal  parts,  and  erect  the 
perpendiculars  A  B,  1 1',  2  2',  <fec.  Now  we  see  that 
the  steam  follows  the  distance  A,  2,  or  two  divisions 
before  it  is  cut  off  the  length  of  the  ordinate  3  3', 
being  three  divisions  from  the  commencement  should 
be  |  of  2,  C-,  the  length  of  4  4',  f-;  of  2,  C;  of  5  5'f; 
of  6  6'  | ;  of  T  T  i ;  of  E  D,  f .  With  the  lengths 
of  all  these  ordinates  marked  on  the  diagram  drawn 
through  the  points  3',  4',  5',  6',  7',  &c.,  the  line  C  D, 
and  you  have  the  required  curve. 

An  experienced  engineer  can  tell  at  a  glance 
whether  an  engine  is  in  good  working  order  from  its 
diagram ;  but  nevertheless,  in  most  cases  it  would  be 
well  to  draw  the  true  curve,  in  order  to  ascertain  how 
much  the  actual  one  differs  from  it,  for  by  this  means 
we  can  ascertain,  while  under  way,  whether  the  valves 
or  piston  leak;  but  in  drawing  the  true  curve,  the 
clearance  of  the  piston  and  space  in  the  nozzles,  <fec., 
must  be  ascertained,  and  that  much  added  to  the  length 
of  the  diagram,  in  order  to  obtain  the  curve  accurately. 
Thus,  supposing  this  space  to  be  equal  in  capacity  to 
six  inches  in  length  of  the  cylinder,  make  the  diagram 
six  inches  longer  than  it  actually  is,  and  proceed  in  the 
manner  we  have  shown. 

Should  the  steam  valves  leak  while  every  thing 


52  INDICATOR   DIAGEAMS. 

else  remains  tight,  the  termination  of  the  expansion 
line  will  be  too  high,  and  if  the  exhaust  valves  or  pis- 
ton leak,  it  will  be  too  low, — allowance  being  made 
for  condensation  in  the  cylinder. 

FIG.  34. 

Steam 10  Ibs.  "  Powhatan  "  stb.  cylinder-top. 

Rev 9  February  13th,  1854. 

Vac 26 

Hot  well 100° 

Throttle  wide. 


Figures  34  and  35  are  two  diagrams  taken  from 
the  U.  S.  Steamer  Powhatan,  on  the  13th  of  February, 
1854 ;  34  was  taken  about  ten  minutes  after  35.  In 
both  of  these  figures  we  have  the  true  hyperbolic 
curves  drawn  in,  with  and  without  taking  the  clear- 
ance, <fec.,  into  account.  The  upper  curve  in  small 
dots  is  the  true  curve,  when  the  clearance,  &c.,  is 
taken  into  consideration,  and  the  lower  one  in  large 
dots  is  the  true  curve  without  reference  to  the  clear 
ance,  <fec.  In  figure  35,  where  the  steam  was  cut  off 
at  a  very  early  part  of  the  stroke,  the  importance  of 
taking  the  clearance,  &c.,  into  consideration,  is  very 
conspicuous.  The  dotted  lines  on  the  right  of  these 


INDICATOR   DIAGRAMS.  53 

diagrams  show  the  amount  they  are  lengthened  by 
adding  the  clearance,  space  in  nozzles,  &c.,  to  them. 

Fio.  36. 

Steam 8£  Ibs.  "  Powhatan  "  stb.  cylinder-top. 

Rev 6  February  13th,  1854. 

Vac 26± 

Hot  well 82°         / 

Throttle  wide. 


From  a  casual  inspection  of  these  diagrams,  they 
seem  to  present  an  anomaly  that  at  first  is  difficult  to 
solve.  Thus,  in  figure  34,  the  termination  of  the  true 
expansion  curve,  considering  clearance,  <fec.,  is  about 
one  pound  above  the  actual  curve,  whereas  in  figure 
35  it  is  two  pounds  below  it.  The  first  would  indicate 
that  the  exhaust  valves  or  piston  leaked,  and  the 
second  that  the  steam  valves  leaked,  while  the  exhaust 
valves  and  piston  were  tight.  Now,  then,  since  one 
was  taken  only  about  ten  minutes  after  the  other,  it  is 
not  at  all  probable  that  this  sudden  change  was 
brought  about  in  that  short  space  of  time ;  hence  we 
must  look  for  some  defect  in  the  engine  that  would 
occasion  it.  We  account  for  it  in  this  way :  In  the 


54  INDICATOR   DIAGRAMS. 

first  case  the  steam  valve  leaked,  and  also  the  steam 
piston,  but  the  piston  leaked  to  a  greater  extent  than 
the  valve,  that  is  to  say,  more  steam  passed  through 
the  piston  and  into  the  condenser  from  the  leakage  of 
the  piston  than  entered  the  cylinder  from  the  leakage 
of  the  valve  ;  therefore,  the  actual  curve  must  fall  be- 
low the  true  curve.  In  the  second  case,  the  steam 
valve  also  leaked,  but  the  pressure  on  the  piston  fell 
so  rapidly,  from  expansion,  that  it  became  too  low  to 
force  a  passage  through  the  piston,  the  elasticity  of  the 
packing  being  sufficient,  in  this  case — though  not  in 
the  other,  where  it  had  a  greater  pressure  to  sustain — 
to  keep  it  tight ;  hence,  the  true  curve  in  this  case 
must  be  below  the  actual  curve,  agreeing  precisely 
with  the  conditions  of  the  figures. 

There  is,  however,  another  thing  which  would  pro- 
duce diagrams  similar  to  those  before  us,  and  which 
most  probably  caused  the  formation  of  these,  viz.,  leak- 
age about  the  cylinder  heads.  Thus,  supposing  the 
stuffing  box,  for  instance,  to  leak.  So  long  as  the 
pressure  in  the  cylinder  remained  above  the  atmo- 
sphere, steam  would  blow  out,  occasioning  the  curve 
to  fall ;  on  the  other  hand,  when  cutting  off  short,  the 
pressure  in  the  cylinder  would  soon  fall  below  the 
atmosphere,  and  air  would  enter,  causing  the  curve  to 
rise,  exactly  as  shown  in  the  figures. 


INDICATOR   DIAGRAMS. 


55 


Fig.  36  is  a  diagram  taken  from  the  U.  S.  Steamer 
San  Jacinto,"  fitted  with  Allen  &  Wells'  cut-off. 

FIG.  36. 

Steam  in  boilers IHlbs.  November  7th,  1855,  llf  A.  M. 

Revolutions 18  After  Engine,  inboard  end. 

Vacuum 25£  Goal  18  tons  in  24  hours. 

Hot  well 104° 

Throttle  4  holes  open.        Scale  =  V»o. 


From  inspection  of  the  expansion  curve  of  this  dia- 
gram, it  appears  that  this  cut-off  does  not  close  so 
quickly  as  Sickel's,  occasioning  the  corner  a  to  be 
more  rounding. 

FIG.  37. 

Steam  in  boilers 9  Ibs.  "Powhatan,"  Feb.  13th,  1854. 

Revolutions 5  stb.  cylinder  bottom,  working  by  hand. 

Hot  well 100° 

Throttle 4 


Figure  3*7  is  a  diagram  showing  the  operation  of 


56  AIR-PUMP   DIAGRAMS. 

the  valves  while  working  "by  hand.  This  valve  ex- 
hibits large  cushioning  and  steam  lead,  the  exhaust 
valve  closing  at  #,  and  the  steam  valve  opening  at  £, 
so  that  the  engine  actually  passed  the  centre  against  a 
pressure  of  6^  Ibs.  above  the  atmosphere. 

Steam 16.5  Ibs.  "  Powhatan  "  stb.  air-pump,  10.50  A.  M., 

Revolutions 9.25  January  18th,  1854. 

Hot  well 106° 

Vacuum  gauge  out  of  order. 


Calculated  for  »/»  full  of  water. 

Number  1  is  a  diagram  taken  from  the  "  Powhat- 
an's  "  starboard  air-pump.  The  Powhatan's  air-pumps 
are  of  the  lifting  kind,  and  the  piston  fitted  with  one 
large  brass  conical  valve.  We  will  explain  the  dia- 
gram. At  #,  the  piston  being  at  the  bottom  of  the 
stroke,  starts  to  rise,  compressing  the  air  and  vapor 
above  it,  until  it  arrives  at  3,  at  which  place  a  sudden 
discharge  of  air  and  vapor  seems  to  have  taken  place, 
and  the  pressure  fell  to  <?,  from  which  point  the  pres- 
sure again  gradually  rose  until  it  arrived  at  d,  where 
the  water  began  to  be  delivered  and  continued  to  the 
end  of  the  stroke. 


AIK-PUMP   DIAGKAMS.  57 

Attached  to  the  top  of  the  air-pumps  is  a  pipe,  run- 
ning  down  into  the  bilge,  for  the  purpose  of  pumping 
off  the  bilge  water.  Where  this  pipe  4s  attached  to 
the  pump  is  fitted  a  valve,  operating  like  an  ordinary 
check  valve,  a  handle  being  made  to  screw  down  on 
the  top  of  it  to  keep  it  firmly  in  its  seat,  when  there  is 
no  water  in  the  bilge. 


Steam 15lbs.    " Powhatan "  stb.  air-pump,  10.55A.M. 

Revolutions 10  January  18th,  1854. 

Hot  well, 106° 

Vacuum  gauge  out  of  order. 


Resistance  of  vapor  and  water  in  Air-pump  . 

— =(6.6 -|-  312  x  .0969=)  .669*7.  lb.  per  square  inch  of  steam  piston. 
Calculated  for  *  8  full  of  water. 

There  being  no  water  in  the  bilge  at  the  time  No.  1 
was  taken,  No.  2  was  taken  five  minutes  after,  for  the 
purpose  of  ascertaining  what  effect  the  opening  of  this 
valve  and  admitting  air  would  produce.  It  shows 
that  no  extra  power,  from  the  admission  of  this  air, 
was  required  to  work  the  pump,  the  average  pressure 
being  about  the  same  as  in  No.  1,  and  that  the  vacuum 
in  the  pumps  at  no  time  was  more  than  4£  Ibs.  There 
was  no  alteration  in  the  vacuum,  as  shown  by  the 
gauge,  however,  attached  to  the  condenser,  and  the 
engines  continued  to  work  in  the  same  manner  as  be- 


58  AIR-PUMP   DIAGRAMS. 

fore  the   bilge  valve   attached   to  the  air-pump  was 
opened. 

Steam 15lbs.  "  Powhatan  "  port  air-pump,  11.6A.M. 

Revolutions 10  January  18th,  1854. 

Hot  well 108° 

Vacuum  gauge  out  of  order. 


Resistance  of  vapor  and  water  in  Air-pump 


=  (6.46  -(-  .223  x  .0969  =)  .6476  Ib.  per  square  inch  of  steam  piston 
Calculated  for  l/7  full  of  water. 

Nos.  3  and  4  were  taken  in  the  same  manner  from 
the  port  air-pump  a  few  minutes  after  1  and  2  were 
taken  from  the  starboard  pump. 

In  these  diagrams  the  pressure  at  the  termination 
of  the  up  stroke,  it  will  be  seen,  is  about  2^  Ibs.  per 
square  inch  above  the  atmosphere,  which  is  due  to  the 
height  of  the  level  of  the  water  surrounding  the  ship 
above  the  top  of  the  air-pump.  The  pressure  increased 
to  between  7  and  8  Ibs.  per  square  inch,  as  shown  in 
other  parts  of  the  diagram,  is  occasioned  by  the  fric- 
tion of  the  water  and  vapor  through  the  delivery  pipes 
and  valves.  The  slanting  off  in  the  diagram,  No.  1, 
from  x  to  ^,  we  think  partly  owing  to  two  causes : 
First,  the  decreased  velocity  of  the  piston  as  it  ap- 


AIR-PUMP  DIAGRAMS.  59 

proaclies  the  end  of  its  stroke  does  not  expel  the  water 
with  such  force,  and  hence  there  is  not  so  much  fric- 

Steam 15lbs.     "  Powhatan  "  port  air-pump,  11.15  A.  M. 

Revolutions 10  January  8th,  1854. 

Hot  well 108° 

Vacuum  gauge  out  of  order. 


Resistance  of  vapor  and  water  in  air-pump 

—(8.16-|-223  x  .0969=)  .8123  Ibs.  per  square  inch  of  steam  piston. 
Calculated  for  l/7  full  of  water. 

tion ;  but  this  would  not  occasion  the  slanting  off  from 
li  to  z  on  the  return  stroke ;  and  secondly,  there- 
fore, we  are  inclined  to  think  that  the  string  slipped  or 
stretched  a  little  from  x  to  y,  and  recoiled  again  to  its 
original  place  from  Ji  to  z. 

We  will  now  proceed  to  ascertain  the 

Power  required  to  work  the  Air-pump. 

Ascertain  the  capacities  of  the  steam  cylinder  and 
air-pump,  by  multiplying  the  areas  of  their  cross-sections 
by  the  lengths  of  their  strokes,  and  divide  the  latter 
by  the  former,  which  will  give  the  ratio  of  the  cylinder 
capacity  to  that  of  the  air-pump.  But  the  air-pump 
makes  but  one  delivery  stroke  to  every  two  strokes  of 
the  steam  piston,  consequently  divide  this  ratio  by 
two,  which  will  give  the  coefficient  for  our  present 


60         POWER   REQUIRED   TO    WORK   THE   AIR-PUMP. 

calculation,  and  this  coefficient  multiplied  by  the  mean 
pressure  per  square  inch  of  air-pump  piston — which 
can  be  ascertained  from  an  indicator  diagram — will 
give  the  mean  pressure  per  square  inch  required  to 
expel  the  air  and  vapor. 

This  of  course  must  be  augmented  by  the  weight 
of  the  water  raised. 

The  indicator  diagram  will  show  very  nearly  at 
what  part  of  the  stroke  the  pump  begins  to  deliver 
the  water,  and  therefore  what  fraction  of  the  pump  is 
filled,  from  which  can  be  easily  ascertained  the  number 
of  cubic  feet  of  water  lifted ;  and  this  number  multi- 
plied by  64.3  or  62.5,  as  the  vessel  may  be  running  in 
salt  or  fresh  water,  will  give  -the  number  of  pounds. 
And  the  number  of  pounds  of  water  lifted,  divided  by 
the  area  of  the  air-pump  piston,  and  multiplied  by  the 
coefficient  before  obtained,  will  give  the  pressure  per 
square  inch  of  steam  piston  required  to  expel  the  water 
from  the  pump. 

The  sum  of  these  results  will  give  the  pressure  per 
square  inch  of  steam  piston  required  to  work  the  air- 
pump  independent  of  friction,  an  amount  that  is  usually 
estimated. 

Example:  The  capacity  of  the  "PowhatanV  cyl- 
inder, i.  e.,  the  space  displaced  by  the  steam  piston  per 
stroke,  is  267.25  cubic  feet:  ditto  in  air-pump,  51.8 
cubic  feet ;  proportion  of  steam  piston  displacement  to 
that  of  half  of  air-pump  piston  displacement,  1.000  to 
.0969;  area  of  air-pump  piston,  2134  square  inches. 
The  pump  was  filled  \  full  of  water,  as  shown  by  dia- 
gram No.  1,  and  the  mean  pressure  throughout  the 
stroke  was  6.5  Ibs.  per  square  inch ;  hence,  6.5  x  .0969 
=  .6298  Ib.  per  square  inch  of  steam  piston  resistance 
from  vapor  in  air-pump,  and  .312  X  .0969  =  .0302  Ib. 


POWER   EEQUIEED   TO    WOEK   THE   AIR-PUMP.          61 

per  square  inch  of  steam  piston  resistance  from  the 
weight  of  water  lifted ;  total  =  (.6298  +  .0302  =)  .66 
pounds  per  square  inch  of  steam  piston,  required  to 
work  the  air-pump,  independent  of  friction. 

Now,  supposing  the  mean  unbalanced  pressure  on 
the  steam  piston  per  square  inch  to  have  been  20  Ibs., 
we  have  20  :  .66  :  :  100  :  3.3  per  cent,  of  the  total 
power  of  the  engine  required  to  work  the  air-pump. 


CHAPTEK  III. 


THE    HYDROMETER. 

THE  Hydrometer  is  an  instrument  used  for  the 
purpose  of  determining  the  specific  gravi-  FIG.  42. 
ties  of  liquids.  When  applied  to  the 
water  of  marine  boilers,  it  indicates  the 
amount  of  saline  matter  the  water  con- 
tains. Figure  42  shows  the  kind  of  hy- 
drometer usually  used  on  board  Ameri- 
can steamers.  The  lower  globe  is  filled 
with  shot,  or  other  weighty  substance, 
for  the  purpose  of  keeping  the  instru- 
ment upright.  When  the  hydrometer  is 
placed  in  fresh  water,  the  point  O  stands 
even  with  the  surface  of  the  water ;  when 
placed  in  water  containing  one  pound  of 
saline  matter  in  thirty-two  pounds  of 
water,  it  stands  at  %j ;  when  the  water 
contains  two  pounds  of  saline  matter  in 
thirty  two  pounds  of  water  it  stands  at 
%2,  and  so  on.  So  that  by  placing  this 
instrument  in  a  small  quantity  of  water, 
drawn  from  the  boilers  at  intervals,  it 
will  show  the  exact  density,  by  which 
we  know  how  to  regulate  the  bio  wing-off. 

In  the  boilers  of  sea-going  vessels  the 
water  is  usually  carried  from  1  %  to  2  per 
hydrometer,  i.  e.,  from  the  point  a  to  5, 
figure  42.  In  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  how- 
ever, in  the  vicinity  of  the  Florida  reefs,  where  the 


THE   HYDEOMETER.  63 

water  is  impregnated  with  an  unusual  amount  of  lime, 
it  is  found  not  to  be  prudent  to  carry  it  beyond  1  \ 

The  hydrometer,  when  made  for  a  certain  temper- 
ature, is  not  adapted  to  any  other,  but  the  water 
should  be  allowed  to  cool  down  to  the  temperature 
marked  on  the  hydrometer  before  observing  the  indi- 
cation, and  for  this  purpose  it  becomes  necessary  also 
to  use  a  thermometer.  The  hydrometers  used  in  this 
country  are  usually  graduated  for  a  temperature  of 
200°  Fahr.  We  can  allow,  however,  for  a  few  degrees 
either  above  or  below  this  figure,  without  appreciable 
error — a  difference  of  10°  in  temperature  making  a 
difference  of  about  an  eighth  of  %2  in  the  scale.  '  Thus, 
supposing  the  water  to  be  at  a  temperature  of  210°, 
and  the  hydrometer  graduated  for  200°  to  stand  at  «, 
or  1%,  the  actual  density  of  the  water  will  not  be  1%, 
but  1%,  or  half  way  between  a  and  b.  On  th&  other 
hand,  if  the  temperature  be  190°,  and  the  hydrometer 
stand  at  1%,  the  true  density  will  be  1%.  Neverthe- 
less, in  practice,  it  is  always  best  to  allow  the  water  to 
cool  to  the  temperature  for  which  the  hydrometer  is 
graduated,  whenever  it  can  be  done  without  the  waste 
of  too  much  time. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  divisions  on  the  scale 
are  not  of  equal  lengths.  Thus :  the  distance  from  O 
to  %z  is  greater  than  from  %2  to  %2,  and  from  %2  to 
%2,  greater  than  from  %2  to  %2,  and  so  on.  The  reason 
of  this  can  be  explained  in  this  manner :  When  the 
instrument  stands  at  O,  the  two  bulbs,  and  all  the 
tube  below  O,  of  course,  are  immersed,  having  the 
weight  due  to  the  length  of  the  tube  only  above  O  to 
support.  When  it  rises  to  y32  it  has  more  weight  to 
support,  from  the  fact  of  there  being  more  tube  out 
of  water,  and  it  also  has  less  bulk  immersed  ;  at  %2  it 
5 


64  LOSS    BY   BLOWING    OFF. 

has  still  more  weight  to  support,  while  there  is  still 
less  of  the  instrument  immersed,  and  so  on  down  to 
the  bottom  of  the  scale,  occasioning  the  lengths  of  the 
divisions  to  become  less  and  less. 

The  proportional  quantity  of  saline  matter  con- 
tained in  sea  water,  at  different  localities,  varies  very 
considerably,  as  will  be  seen  in  the  following 


TABLE: 


Baltic  Sea,  . 
Black  Sea, 
Arctic  Sea, 
Irish  Sea, 


Mediterranean, 
Atlantic  at  Equator. 
South  Atlantic, 
North  Atlantic,        . 


British  Channel,          .        .         -&   \  Dead  Sea, 


LOSS    BY   BLOWING    OFF. 

When  water  contains  3  per  cent,  by  weight  of  sa- 
line matter,  no  deposit  takes  place  at  the  boiling 
point ; — under  atmospheric  pressure  or  212°  Fahr. 
When  it  contains  10  per  cent,  it  makes  a  deposit  of 
lime,  principally  sulphate,  and  at  29,  5  per  cent,  com- 
mon salt. 

The  precise  saturation,  however,  at  which  deposit 
commences  to  take  place  is  not  well  established,  but 
there  is  one  thing  which  is  well  known,  and  that  is, 
the  higher  the  temperature  of  the  water,  the  greater 
will  be  the  deposit,  and  from  this  we  conclude  that 
common  sea  water  would  deposit  a  portion  of  its  saline 
matter  if  heated  to  a  sufficiently  high  temperature. 
The  reason  of  the  increase  in  deposit,,  as  the  tempera- 
ture is  increased,  is  probably  owing  to  the  expansion 
of  the  water,  or  the  separation,  as  it  were,  of  the  par- 
ticles. 

Water  carried  at  a  density  that  would  cause  no 


LOSS    BY    BLOWING    OFF.  65 

deposit  at  a  temperature  of  220°,  would  make  consid- 
erable deposit  at  a  temperature  of  260°  o'r  2 TO0 ;  and 
this  is  the  reason  why  we  are  limited  to  comparatively 
low  steam  in  boilers  using  sea  water.  Independent  of 
the  saving  of  the  loss  by  blowing  off,  repairs  to  boilers, 
labor  of  cleaning  them,  &c.,  this  is  a  powerful  reason  why 
inventive  genius  should  endeavor  to  bring  forth  a  relia- 
ble fresh  water  condenser,  and  why  steamship  owners 
and  others,  having  it  within  their  power,  should  encour- 
age all  such  attempts,  from  the  fact  of  the  great  advan- 
tage to  be  derived  from  carrying  high  pressure  steam, 
and  using  the  expansive  principle  to  its  fullest  extent. 

To  the  minds  of  those  who  cannot  clearly  see  that 
an  increase  of  temperature  occasions  an  increase  in  de- 
posit, a  practical  demonstration  can  be  obtained  by 
examining  the  crown  sheets,  and  other  parts  of  marine 
boilers,  subject  to  the  highest  temperature,  where  it 
will  be  found  the  largest  deposit  takes  place. 

The  deposit  of  lime,  or  "  scale,"  as  it  is  technically 
termed,  on  the  heating  surface  of  boilers,  being  nearly  a 
non-conductor  of  caloric,  prevents  a  large  portion  of  the 
heat  from  entering  the  water,  allowing  it  to  escape  up 
the  chimney,  and  is  therefore  lost ;  and,  if  the  deposit 
of  scale  be  large,  the  metal  of  the  boiler,  being  no 
longer  protected  by  the  water,  becomes  over-heated 
and  "  burnt."  To  prevent  these  results,  a  portion  of 
the  water  is  extracted  periodically,  or  continuously, 
by  the  brine  pump,  or  is  discharged  by  the  blow-off, 
in  order  to  keep  the  density  of  the  water  below  the 
point  at  which  any  serious  deposit  may  take  place. 
But  as  all  the  water  discharged  from  the  boiler  has 
first  to  be  heated,  and  as  it  is  replaced  by  water  of  a 
lower  temperature,  a  loss  of  heat  (which  is  virtually  a 
loss  of  fuel)  is  occasioned  thereby.  This  is  technically 


66  LOSS   BY  BLOWING   OFF. 

termed  "  loss  by  blowing  off,"  and  we  shall  proceed  to 
illustrate  the  manner  of  calculating  it.  Take  an  ex- 
ample. 

Supposing  the  density  of  the  water  entering  the 
boiler  to  be  ^  and  that  of  the  boiler  to  be  maintained 
at  -g2^,  there  will  be  one  part  converted  into  steam,  and 
one  part  blown  out.  Supposing  also  the  temperature 
of  the  water  entering  the  boiler  to  be  100°  Fahr.,  and 
the  temperature  of  the  water  in  the  boiler  to  be  248° 
Fahr.,  we  have  all  the  data  required. 

Keferring  to  Eegnault's  experiments,  (page  9),  we 
see  that  the  total  heat  in  steam  having  248°  for  the 
sensible  heat,  is  1189.58°,  now  then 

1189.58°=:  total  heat; 
100.00°  =  temperature  of  the  water  entering  the 

boiler ; 
1089.58°  —  heat  required  from  the  fuel  for  the 

water  to  be  evaporated  ; 

248°  =  temperature  of  the  water  in  the  boiler ; 
100°=          "  "  "     entering     " 


148°  =  heat  lost  by  blowing  off. 

Therefore,  since  one  part  (requiring  1089.58°)  is 
converted  into  steam,  and  the  other  part  (requiring 
148°)  is  blown  ofi^  the  total  heat  required  of  the  fuel  is 
(1089.58° +  148°=)  1237.58°;  and  as  148°  of  this  is 
blown  off,  we  have  1237.58  :  148  :  :  100  :  11.95  +  per 
cent,  loss  by  blowing  at  the  above  density  and  tem- 
perature. 

If  the  water  had  been  carried  at  a  density  of  1| 
per  hydrometer,  one  part  would  have  been  blown  off 
as  before,  but  only  three-quarters  part  would  have 


LOSS    BY    BLOWING    OFF.  67 

been  converted  into  steam,  hence  we  would  have  pro- 
ceeded thus — 

1189.58° 
100.00° 


1089.58° 

.75° 

817.1850°  =  heat  required  from  the  fuel  for  the 
water  to  be  evaporated. 

248° 
100° 


148°  —  heat  lost  by  blowing  off. 

Therefore   (817.185  +  148  =)  965.185  :  148  : :  100  : 
15.33  +  per  cent. 

And  had  the  water  been  carried  at  a  density  of 
3,  i.  e.  -^2 ,  two  parts  would  have  been  used  for  steam 
and  one  part  blown  off,  hence  the  following : 

1189.58° 
100.00° 

1089.58° 

2° 


2179.16°  =  heat  required  from  the  fuel  for  the 
water  to  be  evaporated. 

248° 
100° 


148°  =  heat  lost  by  blowing  off. 

Therefore  (2179.16°  +  148°)  =  2327.16°  :  148  :  :  100 : 
6.35  per  cent.,  and  so  on  for  any  density.     These  per 


68  GAIN   BY   THE   USE   OF   HEATERS. 

cents,  are  the  losses  in  fuel,  combustible,  minus  that 
lost  from  radiation  and  heated  gases  passing  up  the 
chimney. 

The  above  calculations  apply  only  to  cases  where 
the  water  enters  the  boiler  at  a  density  of  ^ ;  should 
it  enter  at  a  lower  density,  the  loss  will  be  less,  or  a 
greater  density  more,  because  to  retain  the  water  in 
the  boiler  at  the  density  assumed  in  the  above  ex- 
amples, there  would  either  have  to  be  a  less  or  greater 
quantity  blown  off  than  we  have  considered  to  be  the 
case. 

In  order  not  to  lose  entirely  all  the  heat  in  the 
water  blown  off,  some  boilers  are  fitted  with  heaters, 
or  as  they  are  sometimes  termed  incorrectly,  "  refrige- 
rators." These  are  a  series  of  pipes  surrounded  by  the 
feed  water,  and  through  which  the  water  leaving  the 
boilers  has  to  pass ;  by  this  means  the  temperature  of 
the  feed  water  is  considerably  increased  before  it 
enters  the  boiler.  The  following  will  illustrate 


THE  GAIN  BY  PUMPING  WATER  INTO  THE  BOILER  AT  AN 
INCREASED   TEMPERATURE. 

For  this  purpose  two  examples  will  be  sufficient, 
#nd  we  will  commence  with  the  first  one  given  above 
in  the  calculation  on  the  loss  by  blowing  off;  viz. 
steam,  248° ;  feed  water,  100°  ;  and  density,  -^.  Now 
suppose  by  the  application  of  the  heater,  the  feed- 
water,  instead  of  entering  the  boiler  at  100°,  is  made 
to  enter  at  150°,  what  will  be  the  saving  in  fuel  by  its 
application? 


GAIN    BY   THE    USE    OF   HEATERS.  69 

Solution. 

1189.58°  —  total  heat  in  the  steam ; 
100.00°  =  temperature  of  the  feed  water ; 

1089.58°  —  heat  required  from  the  fuel  to  evapo- 
rate one  part  of  water  ; 
248°  =  temperature  of  the  water  blown  off; 
100°—         "  "          feed  water: 


148°  =  heat  lost  by  blowing  off; 

and  1089.58°  +  148°  —  1237.58  =  total  heat  required 
from  the  fuel  where  the  water  is  pumped  into  the 
boiler  at  100°.  Let  us  now  see  what  the  total  heat 
will  be  when  the  water  is  pumped  in  at  150°,  and  the 
difference  between  these  results  will  be,  of  course,  the 
saving 

1189.58°  —  total  heat  in  the  steam ; 
150.00°  =  temperature  of  the  feed  water ; 

1039.58°  =  heat  required  from  the  fuel  to  evapo- 
rate one  part  of  water  ; 
248°  =  temperature  of  the  water  blown  off; 
150°=         "  "          feed  water; 


98°  =  heat  lost  by  blowing  off ; 

and  1039.58°  +  98°  =  1137.58°  =  total  heat  required 
from  the  fuel  when  the  water  is  pumped  into  the  boiler 
at  150°.  Therefore 

1237.58° 
1137.58° 


100°=  saving  in  degrees; 

whence  1237.58°  :  100° : :  100 :  8.08  per  cent.     That  is 
to  say,  if  without  the  heater  the  boilers  consumed  100' 


70  GAIN   BY    THE   USE    OF   HEATERS. 

tons  of  coal  per  day,  with  it  they  would  produce  the 
same  quantity  of  steam  with  91.92  tons. 

EXAMPLE  2D. 

Suppose  that  the  density  of  the  water  in  Example  1 
was  If,  and  all  the  other  conditions  to  remain  unalter- 
ed, what  would  be  the  saving  in  that  case  ? 

/Solution. 

1189.58°  —  total  heat  in  the  steam; 
100.00°  =  temperature  of  the  feed  water ; 

1089.58°  =  heat  required  from  the  fuel  to  evapo- 
rate one  part  of  water  ; 
.75°  =  part  of  water  evaporated  ; 

817.185°  =  heat  required  from  the  fuel  for  the 

water  that  is  evaporated  ; 
248°  =  temperature  of  the  water  blown  off ; 
100°=         "  "  feed  water; 

148°  =  heat  lost  by  blowing  off; 
817.185°+  148°  =  965.185°  =  total  heat  required  from 
the  fuel  when  the  water  is  pumped  into  the  boiler  at 
100°. 

1189.58°  =  total  heat  in  the  steam-, 
150.00°  =  temperature  of  the  feed  water; 

1039.58°  =  heat  required  from  the  fuel  to  evapo- 
rate one  part  of  water ; 
.75°  =  part  of  water  evaporated; 

779.685°  =  heat  required  from  the  fuel  for  the 
water  that  is  evaporated  ; 


INJECTION   WATER.  71 

248°  =  temperature  of  the  water  blown  off; 
150°=         "  "  feed  water; 


98°  =  heat  lost  by  blowing  off; 

779.685°  +  98°  =  877.685°  =  total  heat  required  from 
the  fuel  when  the  water  is  pumped  into  the  boiler  at 
150°.  Therefore 

965.185° 

877.685° 


87.5°=  saving  in  degrees. 

Whence  965.185°  :  87.5° : :  100  :  9.06  per  cent.  And 
in  this  manner  the  calculation  can  be  made  for  any 
density  and  temperature. 

In  making  calculations  on  the  theoretical  saving 
from  the  use  of  the  heater,  we  have  seen  some  engineers 
who  calculate  the  loss  by  blowing  off  without  it,  and 
again  with  it,  and  take  the  difference  between  these 
two  results  for  the  saving; -but  it  will  require  but 
little  reflection  for  any  one  at  all  conversant  with  such 
subjects,  to  perceive  the  error  of  this  mode  of  calcu- 
lation, as  it  takes  no  cognizance  whatever  of  the  extra 
heat  given  to  that  portion  of  the  water  which  is  evap- 
orated. The  mode  of  calculation  given  above  is  the 
only  correct  one,  as  it  takes  into  consideration  all  the 
elements. 

INJECTION  WATER. 

After  the  steam  has  performed  its  duty  in  the 
cylinder,  and  been  exhausted  into  the  condenser,  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  cold  water  is  admitted  into  that  vessel 
for  the  purpose  of  condensing  it,  and  this  quantity 
depends  upon  the  temperatures  of  the  water  and  the 
steam.  We  will  take  an  example. 


72  EVAPORATION. 

Suppose  the  temperature  of  the  injection  water  to 
be  60° ;  steam  as  it  enters  the  condenser,  212° ;  and 
water  in  the  condenser,  110°.  Required  the  proportion 
of  injection  water  to  the  water  evaporated  in  the 
boiler : 

Solution. 

1178.6°  =  total  heat  in  the  steam  at  the  sensible 

temperature  of  212° ; 

110.0°  =  temperature  of  the  water  after  conden- 
sation ; 
1068.6°  =  heat  to  be  destroyed ; 

110°  =  temperature  of  the  water  after  conden- 
sation ; 
60°  —  temperature  of  the  injection  water, 


50°  difference. 

Now  then  we  see  that  we  have  1068.6°  of  heat  to 
be  destroyed,  and  only  50°  to  do  it  with,  therefore  we 
must  make  up  this  difference  in  quantity ;  hence  1068.6° 
-1-50°  =  21.372  times  the  evaporated  water  to  be  ad- 
mitted into  the  condenser  to  condense  the  steam  and 
retain  the  condenser  at  the  temperature  of  110°. 

EVAPORATION. 

Among  the  important  elements  to  be  ascertained 
in  the  performance  of  the  steam  engine,  is  the  quantity 
of  water  evaporated  in  the  boilers  per  unit  of  coal,  or 
other  fuel.  In  sea  boilers  using  salt  water,  one  pound 
of  coal  evaporates  from  4  to  9  pounds  of  water,  de- 
pendent upon  the  quality  of  the  coal,  the  construction 
and  cleanliness  of  the  boilers.  Those  boilers  are  of 
course  the  best  which  evaporate  the  largest  quantity, 
and  hence  the  importance  of  knowing  the  exact  per- 
formance of  each  boiler,  as  well  as  of  the  different  kinds 


EVAPORATION.  73 

of  fuels  used  in  the  same.     To  secure  this  desirable  end 
we  proceed  thus : 

Ascertain  from  indicator  diagrams  the  fraction  of 
the  cylinder  filled  at  each  stroke,  from  which,  know- 
ing the  diameter  of  the  cylinder,  we  ascertain  the 
number  of  cubic  feet  of  steam  required  to  fill  that 
space,  and  to  this  we  add  the  space  in  nozzles,  clear- 
ances, &c.T  which  gives  the  number  of  cubic  feet  of 
steam  used  per  stroke ;  and  the  number  of  cubic  feet  of 
steam  used  per  stroke,  multiplied  into  the  number  of 
strokes  per  hour,  and  divided  by  the  relative  volumes 
of  steam  and  water,  at  the  pressure  the  steam  is  admit- 
ted into  the  cylinder,  gives  the  number  of  cubic  feet 
of  water  evaporated  per  hour,  and  the  number  of  cubic 
feet  of  water  evaporated  per  hour,  multiplied  by  64.3, 
(the  weight  in  pounds  avoirdupois  of  one  cubic  foot  of 
sea  water,)  and  divided  by  the  number  of  pounds  of 
coal  used  per  hour,  gives  the  number  of  pounds  of  water 
evaporated  per  pound  of  coal,  provided  there  is  no 
blowing  off  done ;  but  wherever  there  is  blowing  off, 
this  last  result  has  to  be  increased  to  the  extent  of  the 
loss  by  blowing. 

Suppose  for  instance,  proceeding  in  the  manner 
given  above,  we  find  6  Ibs.  of  water  to  be  evaporated 
per  pound  of  coal ;  and  the  loss  by  blowing  off  to  keep 
the  water  at  the  proper  density  to  be  15  per  cent., 
the  remaining  85  per  cent,  is  that  which  evaporates 
the  6  Ibs. ;  hence  85  :  6  : :  100  :  7.06  Ibs:  of  water  evap- 
orated per  pound  of  coal. 

EXAMPLE. — Suppose  you  have  a  cylinder  70  inches 
diameter  by  10  feet  stroke;  the  initial  pressure  of 
steam  in  the  cylinder  24.5  Ibs.  per  square  inch,  in- 
clusive of  the  atmosphere,  cut  off  at  \  from  commence- 
ment of  stroke;  clearance,  <fec.,  10  cubic  feet;  revolu- 


74  EVAPORATION. 

tions,  15  per  minute ;  coal  consumed  per  hour,  1,500 
Ibs.;  water  carried  at  If  per  hydrometer;  temperature 
of  feed  water,  107°  Fahr. ;  required  the  number  of 
pounds  of  water  evaporated  per  pound  of  coal : 

Solution. 

702  X  .T854  x  10       1Q  =  76  8125    cubic    feet    of 

144  4 

steam  used  per  stroke ;  and  76.8125  x  15  X  2  X  60  = 
138262.5  cubic  feet  of  steam  used  per  hour. 

The  relative  volumes  of  steam  and  water  at  the 
pressure  of  24.5  Ibs.  are  1064  to  1 ;  hence 

138262  5 

^'    x  64.3  -f- 1500  =  5.57  Ibs.  of  water  per  pound 

of  coal,  neglecting  the  loss  by  blowing  off;  but,  ac- 
cording to  the  conditions  of  the  example,  the  loss  by 
bio  wing  off  is  found  to  be  14.1  per  cent.,  the  remain- 
ing 85.9  per  cent,  is  that  therefore  which  evaporated 
the  5.57  Ibs.  of  water ;  hence  the  true  evaporation  is 
found  to  be  85.9  :  5.57  : :  100  :  6.48  Ibs.  of  water  per 
pound  of  coaL 

The  above  calculation  takes  no  cognizance  of  the 
leakage  of  the  valves,  loss  by  radiation,  or  condensa- 
tion in  the  cylinder,  pipes,  <fec. ;  hence  the  results  show 
too  small,  but  it  is  the  only  standard  of  comparison. 

Some  parties  calculate  the  evaporative  power  of 
boilers  by  measuring  the  quantity  of  water  pumped 
into  them  during  any  given  time,  and  also  the  quantity 
of  coal  consumed  in  the  furnaces  during  the  same  time, 
and  dividing  the  weight  of  the  former  by  the  latter, 
which  they  conceive  gives  the  weight  of  water  evapo- 
rated per  unit  of  coal.  Upon  first  sight  this  mode  of 
operating  appears  very  simple  and  correct ;  but  unfor- 
tunately, notwithstanding  its  simplicity,  the  results  are 


STEAM   AND    VACUUM    GAUGES.  5 

never  accurate,  the  evaporation  being  always  shown 
too  large,  for  the  very  simple  reason,  that  all  the  water 
pumped  into  a  steam  boiler  is  never  evaporated.  All 
boilers,  and  pipes,  and  cocks  attached  thereto,  leak 
more  or  less,  and  sometimes  boilers  foam,  occasioning 
water  to  be  worked  into  the  cylinders,  and  as,  accord- 
ing to  this  mode  of  calculation,  all  water  escaping  by 
this  means  is  supposed  to  be  evaporated,  the  result 
manifestly  cannot  be  correct. 

Steam  and  vacuum  Gauges. 

As  applied  to  the  marine  steam  engine,  the  mer- 
curial steam  and  vacuum  gauges  are  the  most  common, 
though  of  late  years  there  have  come  into  use  a  variety 
of  metallic  gauges,  many  of  which,  from  the  little 
attention  they  require,  appear  to  be  very  well  adapted 
to  the  purpose  for  which  they  were  intended. 

The  most  prominent  of  these  are  "  Schaffer's," 
"Hearson's,"  "Schmidt's,"  " Ashcroft's,"  "Eastman's," 
"  Stubblefield's,"  and  "Allen's."  In  the  first  three, 
the  spring  is  a  thin  corrugated  plate,  upon  which  the 
steam  acts,  communicating  motion  to  a  hand  or  pointer 
which  moves  around  a  circular  disc  marked  in  pounds : 
the  spring  in  Ashcroft's  gauge  is  a  bent  tube,  which 
the  elasticity  of  the  steam  tends  to  straighten.  East- 
man's gauge  is  a  combination  of  springs  and  levers. 
As  these  gauges  are  all  constructed  on  the  same  prin- 
ciple, viz.,  the  elasticity  of  metal,  we  shall  not  stop 
here  to  describe  them,  as  it  is  more  directly  our  object 
to  deal  with  principles,  rather  than  mechanical  ar-. 
rangements,  which  are  the  chief  peculiarities  of  these 
gauges.  We  will  pass  on  to  the  mercurial  closed  top 
vacuum  gauge. 


STEAM   AND    VACUUM   GAUGES. 


Fig.  43. 


a  b  c  d,  figure  43,  is  a  basin  filled 
with  mercury  up  to  the  point  A ;  the 
tube  B  is  also  filled  with  mercury. 
The  pipe  e  communicates  with  the 
condenser,  and  when  that  vessel  is 
filled  with  air  of  the  atmospheric 
pressure,  the  surface  of  the  mercury 
in  the  basin  is  pressed  with  a  pres- 
sure of  about  15  Ibs.  per  square  inch, 
causing  the  tube  B  to  remain  filled ; 
but  when  a  partial  vacuum  is  created 
in  the  condenser,  the  mercury  having 
no  longer  the  atmospheric  pressure 
to  sustain,  falls  in  the  tube  B,  and 
the  figures  marked  on  the  scale  will 
exhibit  the  extent  of  the  vacuum. 
With  this  arrangement,  therefore,  there  is  no  necessity 
of  making  the  tube  30  inches  in  length,  as  all  engines 
are  supposed  to  maintain  at  least  IT  or  18  inches  of 
vacuum,  and  a  tube  long  enough  to  show  this  is  all 
that  is  required.  Could  the  surface  of  the  mercury 
remain  constantly  at  A,  the  divisions  on  the  scale 
would  be  of  equal  lengths,  and  one  inch  apart,  but  as 
the  mercury  rises  a  little  in  the  reservoir  as  it  falls  in  the 
tube,  the  lengths  of  these  divisions  vary  a  little,  depend-' 
ent  upon  the  relative  volumes  of  the  tube  and  reservoir. 
The  aperture  in  the  lower  end  of  the  tube  is  made 
very  small,  to  prevent  the  oscillation  of  the  mercury. 
At  A  is  a  small  hole  fitted  with  a  screw.  This  is  left 
open,  while  filling  the  gauge,  as  an  overflow  to  the 
surplus  mercury,  it  being  so  situated  that  the  contents 
of  the  tube  B  is  just  sufficient  to  fill  the  reservoir  to 
the  point  30,  or  the  true  vacuum  line. 

The  pressure  of  the  atmosphere,  as  it  varies  from 
time  to  time,  does  not  alter  the  indications  of  this 


STEAM    AND    VACUUM    GAUGES. 


FIG.  44. 


gauge,  inasmuch  as  it  always  exhibits  the  difference 
between  the  vacuum  in  the  condenser  and  a  perfect 
vacuum. 

Had  the  top  of  the  tube  B  communicated  with  the 
condenser,  and  the  basin  abed  been  open  to  the 
atmosphere,  the  gauge  would  then  have  been  what  is 
termed  an  open-top  vacuum  gauge,  and  would  require 
to  have  been  30  inches  in  length — the  scale  being 
reversed,  the  lowest  figure  commencing  at  the  bottom. 
With  such  a  gauge,  all  variation  in  the  pressure  of  the 
atmosphere  affects  its  indications. 

Figure  44  is  a  siphon  steam  gauge, 
filled  with  mercury  to  the  level  a  a. 
The  short  leg  connects  to  the  boiler, 
and  the  long  leg  is  open  to  the  atmo- 
sphere. The  steam  pressing  upon  the 
mercury  at  #,  forces  up  the  stick  resting 
on  the  mercury  in  the  other  leg  at  #', 
showing  the  pressure  in  pounds  per 
square  inch,  marked  on  the  scale  at  the 
top  of  the  gauge.  These  divisions  are 
one  inch  apart,  and  indicate  pounds 
pressure,  for  the  reason  that  the  descent 
of  one  inch  in  the  short  leg  causes  a  rise 
of  one  inch  in  the  long  leg,  making  a 
difference  in  the  level  of  the  mercury 
of  two  inches,  which  corresponds  to  one 
pound  pressure ;  that  is  to  say,  a  column 
of  mercury  two  inches  high,  and  having 
a  base  equal  in  area  to  one  square  inch, 
will  weigh  in  round  numbers  one  pound. 
In  making  a  gauge,  it  matters  not 
what  may  be  the  diameter  of  the  tube, 
but  whatever  it  may  be,  it  should  be  uniform  through- 
out, in  order  that  the  indications  may  be  correct. 


T8          "  STEAM  AND  VACUUM  GAUGES. 

The  stick  that  is  put  in  the  long  leg,  when  there  is 
no  steam  on,  has  one  end  resting  on  the  mercury,  while 
the  other  stands  at  0.  This  stick  should  be  made  of 
some  very  light  wood — soft  white  pine  answers  the 
purpose  very  well,  with  the  lower  end  a  little  the 
largest,  in  order  to  have  a  good  bearing  on  the  mer- 
cury. 

To  convert  this  gauge  into  a  vacuum  gauge,  it 
would  be  necessary  only  to  connect  the  long  leg  to 
the  condenser,  and  attach  a  scale  to  the  short  leg  with 
the  lowest  number  commencing  at  the  top. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

CASUALTIES,   ETC. 

How  to  act  if  the  Eccentric  be  broken  in  an  irreparable 
manner. 

IF  there  be  two  paddle  engines  connected  at  an  angle 
of  90°,  connect  the  starting  bar  of  the  deranged  engine, 
by  means  of  a  line  and  guide  pulleys,  to  the  cross-tail, 
air-pump  beam,  air-pump  cross-head,  or  other  part 
having  motion  coincident  with  the  piston  of  the  other 
engine,  to  give  the  bar  motion  in  one  direction,  and 
attach  a  heavy  weight  to  it,  with  a  line  running  over 
a  pulley,  to  give  it  motion  in  the  opposite  direction. 

If  there  be  but  one  engine,  connect  by  similar 
means,  to  the  connecting  rod  of  the  deranged  engine, 
which  will  give  the  proper  motion. 

How  to  act  when  a  Steamer  springs   aleak  and  com- 
mences to  fill  rapidly. 

Put  on  immediately  all  bilge  injections  and  bilge 
pumps,  and  shut  off  all  other  injections.  If  they  do 
not  keep  the  water  down,  break  the  joints  on  the  bot- 
tom or  side  injections,  and  allow  them  to  draw  water 
from  the  bilge,  taking  care  to  station  a  man  at  each 
one  to  prevent  any  thing  from  passing  in  that  would 
choke  the  valves. 

Vessels  are  sometimes  saved  from  foundering  by 
6 


80  CASUALTIES,    ETC. 

covering  the  leak  with  a  sail-cloth  passed  over  the 
bows  and  under  the  bottom. 

If  the  leak  be  a  large  one,  such  as  one  occasioned 
by  a  collision,  it  may  be  possible  to  force  a  mattress,  or 
something  of  that  nature,  into  it  from  the  outside. 

How  to  proceed  when  all  the  feed  is  on  and  the  water 
does  not  rise  in  the  boilers. 

It  sometimes  happens  that  when  all  the  feed  is  on, 
and  the  feed  pumps  are  apparently  performing  their 
usual  duty,  the  water  does  not  rise  in  the  boilers,  but 
either  retains  its  level  at  the  time  the  feed  was  put  on, 
or  gradually  falls.  In  this  event,  one  of  two  things 
must  be  manifest — either  that  the  water  does  not  enter 
the  boiler,  or  if  it  does  enter,  is  escaping  through  some 
other  orifice.  The  first  thing,  therefore,  to  do,  is  to 
examine  the  check  valve  to  see  if  it  is  in  operation. 
This  can  be  done*  by  applying  the  ear  to  the  chamber, 
to  ascertain  if  the  valve  rises  and  falls,  at  each  stroke 
of  the  pump,  and  also  by  applying  the  hand  to  the 
pipe,  immediately  below  the  check  valve,  in  order  to 
ascertain  if  it  be  cool.  If  these  are  found  to  be  all 
right,  examine  the  blow-off  cocks,  and  all  other  water 
connections  with  the  boilers,  to  ascertain  if  they  be 
closed ;  some  of  which,  in  all  probability,  will  be  par- 
tially open,  but  if  they  should  all  be  found  closed,  the 
pump  must  be  pumping  air  into  the  boilers  instead  of 
water.  The  next  step  would  therefore  be,  to  examine 
the  pump  and  induction  pipe,  in  order  to  ascertain  and 
stop  the  air  leak. 

Upon  examining  the  check  valve,  should  it  not  be 
found  in  operation,  the  next  step  would  be  to  examine 
the  pump,  to  see  if  it  was  hot ;  also  relief  and  pump 


CASUALTIES,   ETC.  81 

valves,  to  see  if  they  were  gagged ;  and  lastly,  tlie 
eduction  pipe,  to  see  if  it  were  burst — either  of  which 
causes  would  prevent  the  pump  from  delivering  water. 
A  feed  pump  may  get  hot  from  four  causes : 

First.  There  may  be  so  small  a  quantity  of  injec- 
tion water  used  as  to  cause  it,  when  delivered  to  the 
hot  well,  to  be  of  sufficiently  high  temperature  to  heat 
the  pump. 

Second.  Friction,  occasioned  from  muddy  water,  or 
tight  packing. 

Third.  The  check  and  delivery  valves  may  be 
caught  up  or  very  leaky,  allowing  the  hot  water  from 
the  boiler  to  run  back  to  the  pump. 

Fourth.  External  application  of  heat,  the  pump 
being  situated  near  the  boiler  or  other  hot  body. 

A  feed-pump  cannot  deliver  water  when  hot,  for 
the  reason  that  the  vapor  constantly  generated  within 
it,  by  its  elasticity  prevents  the  induction  valve  from 
opening  and  admitting  water. 

Should  the  feed  pipe  burst,  it  can  be  repaired  tem- 
porarily by  wrapping  it  with  canvas  coated  with  white 
lead ;  this  being  secured  by  strong  twine  or  marline, 
wound  closely  around  the  pipe  the  full  length  of  the 
canvas. 

Should  the  pipe  be  split  open  for  a  considerable 
distance,  it  might  first  be  closed  with  wood  or  iron 
clamps,  as  came  most  convenient,  before  applying  the 
canvas  and  twine. 

Foaming. 

Foaming,  or  priming,  as  it  is  sometimes  termed,  is 
violent  ebullition  or  agitation  of  the  water,  occasioned 
by  an  undue  relation  of  temperature  between  the 
steam  and  water.  Thus,  supposing  a  large  quantity 


82  CASUALTIES,    ETC. 

of  steam  to  be  suddenly  taken  from  the  boiler,  the 
pressure  of  steam  is  immediately  reduced  below  what 
is  due  to  the  temperature  of  the  water,  and  the  result 
is  a  sudden  rising  up  of  the  water  from  all  parts  of  the 
boiler.  Foam  can,  therefore,  be  defined  to  be  a  mix- 
ture of  steam  and  water.  Boilers  are  known  to  be 
foaming  when  the  water  does  not  come  out  of  the 
gauge  cocks  solid,  or  wh'en  there  is  a  considerable  agi- 
tation of  the  water  in  the  glass  gauges. 

To  suppress  foaming,  put  on  a  strong  feed  and 
blow  off,  cut  off  shorter  or  partially  close  the  throttle. 
Oil  or  melted  tallow,  injected  into  the  boilers  through 
the  feed  pumps,  will  also  prevent  foaming,  but  these 
are  somewhat  expensive  expedients. 

Boilers  constructed  with  insufficient  steam  room, 
are  most  likely  to  foam,  because  at  each  stroke  of  the 
piston  a  large  proportion  of  the  steam  is  taken  from 
the  boiler,  and  the  pressure  therefore  becomes  mate- 
rially reduced.  Boilers  also  constructed  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  prevent  the  easy  escape  of  steam  from 
the  surfaces  on  which  it  is  generated,  are  likely  to 
foam.  Thus,  supposing  there  be  a  large  amount  of 
heating  surface  on  the  crowns  and  other  parts  towards 
the  bottom  of  the  boiler,  and  that  the  steam  generated 
on  these  surfaces  in  consequence  of  coming  in  contact 
with  the  flues,  tubes,  braces,  &c.,  can  find  but  a  com- 
paratively small  exit  to  the  surface  of  the  water, 
the  result  will  be,  that  where  it  does  escape,  it  will 
force  a  large  body  of  water  up,  mixing  it  with  the 
steam. 

To  carry  too  much  water  in  boilers  will  cause  them 
to  foam  by  reducing  the  steam  room.  Running  from 
salt  to  fresh  water,  or  vice  versa,  will  also  cause  foam- 
ing ;  in  the  former  case,  because  fresh  water  boils  at  a 


CASUALTIES,   ETC.  83 

lower  temperature,  but  a  satisfactory  explanation  of 
the  latter  case  appears  to  be  difficult  to  arrive  at.  The 
boilers  of  sea  steamers,  when  running  in  muddy  rivers, 
usually  foam  considerably. 

It  sometimes  occurs,  while  the  boilers  are  foaming 
badly,  that  the  engines  have  to  be  stopped  in  order  to 
take  soundings,  or  from  other  causes.  Now,  the  first 
thing  after  stopping  the  engines,  in  any  case,  is  always 
to  try  the  water;  for  it  will  mostly  always  be  found 
to  be  lower  when  the  engines  are  standing  still  than 
when  under  way,  but  when  the  boilers  are  foaming,  it 
is  of  the  highest  importance  to  try  immediately  the 
height  of  the  water,  for  as  the  foaming  ceases  after  the 
engines  are  stopped,  it  may  happen  that  the  water  has 
fallen  entirely  out  of  the  gauges  and  left  the  flues,  in 
which  event,  if  the  engines  were  going  to  be  started 
again  in  three  or  four  minutes,  the  better  plan  would 
be  to  open  the  safety  valve  to  keep  the  water  foaming, 
so  as  to  keep  the  flues  covered,  and  when  the  engines 
are  started  again  to  put  all  the  feed  on.  But  if  the 
engines  were  going  to  stand  still  for  a  considerable 
time,  blow  off  a  portion  of  the  steam,  if  it  be  too  high, 
dampen  the  fires  a  little,  and  put  on  the  auxiliary  feed. 

The  Condenser  heats. 

When  engines  are  standing  still,  it  sometimes 
occurs  that  the  condenser  gets  so  hot,  that  when  it 
becomes  necessary  to  start  again,  the  pressure  has  be- 
come so  great  in  it,  that  the  injection  water  will  not 
enter.  Leaky  steam  and  exhaust  valves  will  alone 
cause  this,  but  in  no  case  should  it  ever  be  allowed  to 
occur.  When  an  engine  begins  to  get  hot,  the  crack- 
ing noise  in  the  condenser,  and  about  the  foot  valves, 


84  CASUALTIES,   ETC. 

v 

will  always  indicate  what  is  going  on,  time  enough  to 
check  it,  which  can  be  done  by  giving  a  little  injec- 
tion, and  causing  the  engines  to  make  two  or  three 
revolutions  back  and  forth.  If,  however,  the  engine 
should  become  too  hot  to  take  the  injection  water,  the 
only  plan  will  be  to  blow  through,  or  pump  water  into 
the  condenser  if  there  be  such  an  arrangement,  or  to 
cool  the  condenser  by  external  application  of  cold 
water. 

If  when  under  way  it  is  indicated  by  the  gauge 
that  the  engine  is  gradually  losing  its  vacuum,  apply 
the  hand  to  the  condenser,  in  order  to  ascertain  if  it 
be  getting  hot,  and  if  such  be  found  to  be  the  case 
give  a  little  more  injection;  but  if  that  does  not  help 
the  cause,  give  more  still.  If  the  vacuum  continues  to 
grow  less,  the  probability  is  that  the  injection  pipe 
has  become  choked ;  in  which  event  shut  off  that  in- 
jection and  put  on  another.  Should  both  the  bottom 
and  side  become  choked,  inject  from  the  bilge.  Should 
the  bilge  injection  also  be  out  of  order,  the  engine  will 
have  to  be  stopped,  and  the  snifting  valve  secured 
down  (if  there  be  one)  while  the  injections  are  blown 
through  to  clear  them.  Sea  weed,  and  things  of  that 
nature,  sometimes  get  over  the  strainers  of  injection 
pipes,  preventing  the  entrance  of  water. 

Most  if  not  all  marine  engines  of  modern  construc- 
tion are  fitted  with  a  thermometer  to  the  hot  well,  to 
ascertain  the  temperature  of  the  water,  which  is  usually 
carried  from  100°  to  115°  Fahr.  This  instrument  is 
very  important,  in  order  to  maintain  an  even  temper- 
ature (the  sense  of  touch  of  the  engineer's  hand  not 
being  delicate  enough  for  that  purpose),  for  it  may 
often  occur  that  there  may  start  small  leaks  about  the 
condenser  and  exhaust  pipe  joints,  which  would  cause 


CASUALTIES,   ETC.  85 

a  decrease  in  the  vacuum,  and,  as  without  the  ther- 
mometer, the  first  impulse  would  be  to  give  more 
injection,  with  it  we  would  turn  our  attention  to  find- 
ing and  stopping  the  leak.  This  can  be  done  by  hold- 
ing a  lighted  candle  around  the  joints,  and  wherever 
there  is  a  leak  the  flame  will  be  drawn  in.  To  stop  it, 
mix  a  little  putty,  of  white  and  red  lead,  and  apply  it 
to  the  crevice ;  the  presence  of  the  atmosphere  will 
force  it  in. 

Getting  under  way. 

When  lying  in  port,  where  the  steam  will  not  be 
required  for  at  least  four  or  five  days,  it  is  proper  that 
the  water  should  be  blown  or  pumped  out  of  the 
boilers,  and  a  portion  of  the  man  and  hand-hole  plates 
removed,  to  allow  a  circulation  of  air.  When,  there- 
fore, the  order  is  given  to  get  up  steam,  the  first  thing 
is  to  see  that  all  these  plates  are  put  on,  and  the  joints 
properly  made,  and  this  duty  should  receive  the  direct 
superintendence  of  the  engineer  having  charge  of  the 
same ;  for  should  any  one  of  them  leak  badly  after  the 
steam  is  raised,  the  departure  of  the  ship  might  be  de- 
layed some  hours  in  consequence.  After  this  duty  has 
been  properly  attended  to,  open  the  blow-off  cocks  and 
run  the  water  up  in  the  boilers  to  the  proper  level,  or, 
if  the  boilers  are  so  situated  that  the  water  will  not  run 
up  high  enough,  finish  the  supply  with  the  hand 
pumps,  wood  the  furnaces  while  the  water  is  entering 
the  boiler,  and  when  the  proper  height  of  water  is 
attained  start  the  fires.  If  it  be  important  to  raise 
steam  quickly,  start  the  fires  as  soon  as  water  is  dis- 
covered in  the  gauges,  continuing  the  supply  while  the 
fires  are  burning.  As  a  small  quantity  of  finely  split 
wood,  with  a  little  shavings  or  oily  waste  placed  in 


86  CASUALTIES,    ETC. 

the  mouth  of  the  furnaces,  is  all  that  is  necessary  to 
start  the  fires,  the  back  part  of  the  furnaces,  particu- 
larly in  boilers  with  inferior  draft,  should  be  covered 
with  a  layer  of  coal  to  keep  out  the  cold  air. 

In  raising  steam  it  has  been  the  custom  to  recom- 
mend that  the  valves  of  the  engine  be  blocked  open, 
so  as  to  allow  the  heated  air  from  the  boilers  to  pass 
in  and  warm  up  the  engine  before  steam  begins  to  be 
generated ;  but  as  in  many  cases  this  is  attended  with 
considerable  trouble,  and  as  the  advantages  to  be  de- 
rived from  it  are  very  small,  it  hardly  appears  to  the 
author's  mind  to  "  pay."  The  safety  or  vacuum  valve 
should,  however,  be  kept  open  until  steam  begins  to 
form,  in  order  to  let  the  heated  air  escape.  The  strain 
upon  boilers  being  from  the  inside,  they  are  con- 
structed and  braced  with  the  special  view  of  with- 
standing this  strain,  many  of  the  braces  being  entirely 
useless  in  sustaining  a  pressure  from  without ;  marine 
boilers  are  therefore  fitted  with  a  small  valve  opening 
inwards,  and  weighted  so  as  to  open  and  admit  air 
whenever  the  pressure  from  within  falls  to  about  five 
pounds  per  square  inch  below  the  atmosphere.  These 
valves  are  called  differently  by  different  parties,  as 
follows :  vacuum  valve,  air  valve,  reverse  valve,  &c. 

After  steam  has  been  raised  to  3  or  4  Ibs.,  the 
engine  should  then  be  blown  through  and  warmed  up, 
and  after  sufficient  steam  is  raised  to  move  the  piston, 
the  engine  should  be  turned  over  two  or  three  times, 
to  see  that  every  thing  is  right,  before  reporting 
ready. 

On  Coming  into  Port. 

After  the  engines  are  no  longer  needed,  before 
hauling  the  fires,  after  a  long  run,  it  would  be  well 


CASUALTIES,    ETC.  87 

to  try  the  pistons  and  valves,  in  order  to  ascertain 
if  they  be  leaky.  To  try  the  piston,  open  the  water 
valve  on  one  end  of  the  cylinder  and  the  steam 
valve  on  the  opposite  end;  if  the  piston  leaks,  the 
steam  will  escape  through  the  water  valve.  To  ascer- 
tain if  the  steam  valves  leak,  open  the  water  valves  on 
both  ends  of  the  cylinder.  To  ascertain  if  the  exhaust 
valves  leak,  open  the  steam  valves  and  any  cock 
in  the  exhaust  side  of  the  steam  chest  or  exhaust 
pipes. 

While  under  way  it  may  be  discovered  that  there 
is  a  slight  thump  in  the  engine  when  passing  one  or 
or  the  other  or  both  centres,  and  the  indicator  hav- 
ing been  applied  shows  the  usual  lead,  the  inference 
is  that  some  part  of  the  working  engine  is  loose ;  it  is 
important,  therefore,  to  find  out  what  it  is  on  coming 
into  port.  To  do  this  place  the  engine  on  the  centre, 
and  give  the  piston  steam  suddenly  by  raising  and 
lowering  the  starting  bar ;  observe  closely  the  cross- 
head,  crank-pin,  main-shaft,  and  other  main  connections, 
to  see  where  the  jar  is.  Should  it  not  be  discovered 
after  this,  jam  the  cross-head  fast,  so  as  to  prevent  the 
slightest  motion,  and  then  give  steam  as  before,  in 
which  event,  if  the  thump  be  still  felt,  the  piston  will 
doubtless  be  found  to  have  worked  a  little  loose. 

If  it  be  the  intention  to  remain  in  port  several 
days,  before  hauling  the  fires,  sufficient  steam  should 
be  raised,  if  the  boilers  be  capable  of  bearing  the 
pressure,  to  blow  all  the  water  out  of  the  boilers.  After 
the  boilers  become  cool,  the  hand-hole  plates,  over  the 
furnaces  particularly,  should  be  taken  off,  to  examine 
the  crowns,  where  the  greater  amount  of  scale  will  be 
found  deposited,  and  from  which  we  can  judge  if  the 
boilers  require  scaling.  Mere  dampness  in  boilers  is 


88  CASUALTIES,    ETC. 

found  to  be  injurious,  by  occasioning  a  rapid  oxida- 
tion, and  in  order  to  prevent  this,  one  or  two  hand- 
hold plates  should  be  taken  off  the  bottom  of  the 
boilers,  in  order  to  let  the  water  drain  out  dry.  It 
would  be  well  also  to  remove  a  man-hole  plate  from 
the  top  of  the  boilers  to  allow  a  circulation  of  air. 
If  these  things  cannot  be  done  it  will  be  better  to  keep 
the  boilers  filled  with  water,  rather  than  a  small 
quantity  in  the  bottoms.  In  damp  climates,  such  as 
the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  light  fires  should  be  made  in 
the  ash-pits  occasionally. 

Scaling  Boilers. 

Notwithstanding  the  water  in  the  boilers  is  not 
allowed  to  exceed  in  density  If  to  2  per  saline  hydrom- 
eter, it  will  be  found  after  a  time  that  a  quantity  of 
scale,  composed  principally  of  lime,  has  accumulated 
on  the  crown  sheets,  tubes  or  flues,  and  other  parts  of 
the  boiler.  If  this  be  allowed  to  remain  the  metal 
will  become  overheated  and  burned ;  it  becomes  ne- 
cessary, therefore,  to  remove  it,  which  can  be  alone 
done  by  mechanical  means.  Sharp-faced  "  scaling 
hammers "  can  be  used  to  knock  the  scale  off  those 
places  that  are  within  the  arm's  reach,  and  long  bars 
flattened  at  both  ends,  and  sharpened,  called  "  scaling 
bars,"  will  knock  it  off  the  more  remote  parts.  In  the 
Martin  tubular  boiler,  which  is  accessible  in  every 
part,  it  is  only  necessary  to  condense  the  steam  in  the 
boilers  for  a  day  or  so  after  the  ship  comes  to  anchor ; 
this  will  soften  the  scale  so  that  a  gang  of  men  may  be 
put  into  them  as  soon  as  the  man-hole  plates  are  re- 
moved, and  scrape  off  all  of  it  in  a  few  hours.  The 
scale,  however,  must  never  be  allowed  to  exceed  the 
thickness  of  writing  paper. 


COMING   TO   ANCHOR.  89 

It  has  been  proposed  in  some  quarters  to  heat  the 
tubes  or  flues  by  burning  shavings,  or  some  other  such 
substance  in  them,  and  then  to  cool  them  off  suddenly 
by  pumping  cold  water  upon  them,  the  sudden  con^ 
traction  causing  the  scale  to  crack  off.  This  plan,  how- 
ever, to  our  mind,  does  not  deserve  much  favor,  and 
never  should  be  resorted  to,  if  the  scale  can  be  reached 
in  any  other  manner,  for  the  production  of  leaks  will 
mostly  always  be  the  result. 

It  is,  however,  hoped  that  engineers  will  soon  be 
relieved  from  this  duty,  and  steamer  owners  benefited 
by  the  introduction  of  fresh  water  condensers  into  all 
sea  steamers. 

Preparatory  to  coming  to  Anchor,  or  securing  to  the 
Wharf. 

Fifteen  or  twenty  minutes  before  coming  to  anchor, 
or  making  fast  to  the  wharf,  the  chief  engineer  should 
be  informed  of  the  fact  by  the  officer  of  the  deck,  or 
some  other  person  informed  on  the  matter,  so  that  the 
fires  can  be  allowed  to  burn  down,  and  the  pressure  of 
steam  permitted  to  fall  to  such  an  extent  that  the 
necessity  for  blowing  off  is  avoided.  By  this  means 
the  great  nuisance  of  blowing  off  steam  is  not  only 
obviated,  but  there  is  a  considerable  saving  in  fuel, 
the  fires  being  permitted  to  burn  down  sufficiently  low 
to  supply  only  the  amount  of  steam  required  while 
working  the  engines  by  hand,  rendering  it  much  easier 
also  on  the  firemen  (whose  duties  on  any  occasion  are 
arduous  enough)  by  having  a  very  light,  instead  of  a 
very  heavy  fire  to  haul. 

In  coming  to  anchor  it  is  usually  well  to  pump  a 
little  extra  water  into  the  boiler,  so  as  to  insure  a 
proper  supply  while  operating  the  engines  by  hand. 


90  THE   FIRES   WHILE   UNDER    WAY. 

When  it  is  desired  to  raise  steam,  the  order  from 
the  captain  should  always  be  what  time  it  is  intended 
to  get  underway,  leaving  to  the  discretion  of  the  chief 
engineer  to  start  the  fires  at  such  time  as  he  may  con- 
sider proper,  in  order  to  secure  steam  and  every  thing 
ready  at  the  proper  time. 

Rega/rding  the  Fires  while  under  Way. 

Small  as  this  may  appear  in  the  eyes  of  one  not 
practically  conversant  with  the  management  of  the 
steam  engine,  it  is  one  of  the  most  important  things 
that  the  engineer  is  called  upon  to  regulate :  on  the 
one  hand,  that  a  proper  and  uniform  supply  of  steam 
is  maintained,  and  on  the  other,  that  more  fuel  is  not 
consumed  than  is  actually  necessary  to  produce  the  re- 
sult. Different  fuels  and  differently  constructed  boil- 
ers require  the  fires  to  be  regulated  in  a  different 
manner,  and  notwithstanding  the  repeated  efforts,  the 
adoption  of  specific  rules,  which  shall  apply  alike  to 
all,  is  positively  absurd.  A  few  general  hints,  how- 
ever, touching  the  leading  features,  may  be  useful  to 
those  who  have  not  had  much  experience  in  this  mat- 
ter, but  they  must  bear  in  mind,  nevertheless,  that 
actual  service  and  observation  for  themselves,  will 
alone  make  them  proficient,  no  matter  how  well  they 
may  understand  the  chemistry  of  coal,  or  the  natural 
laws  governing  the  combustion  of  matter. 

The  proper  supply  of  atmospheric  air,  and  the 
proper  time  for  the  combustion,  are  the  important  ele- 
ments in  the  consumption  of  coal.  A  slow  rate  of 
combustion,  and  a  moderate  draft,  always  producing  a 
better  evaporative  result,  than  when  the  fires  are  urged, 
occasioning  them  to  be  more  rapid;  and  hence,  on 


THE   FERES   WHILE   TENDER   WAY.  91 

no  occasion,  should  "  blowers  "  be  resorted  to,  if  the 
proper  supply  of  steam  can  be  maintained  without 
them. 

The  fire  should  be  spread  uniformly  all  over  the 
grate  bars,  and  in  the  use  of  bituminous  coal,  should 
be  from  6  to  8  inches  in  thickness,  but  with  anthracite 
coal,  4  or  5  inches  will  be  thick  enough.  So  long  as 
the  ash  pit  remains  bright,  there  is  no  necessity  for 
slicing  or  stirring  up  the  fire,  but  whenever  the  spaces 
between  the  bars  become  choked  with  clinker,  or 
ashes,  it  will  be  indicated  by  the  darkness  in  the  ash 
pit,  and,  if  burning  bituminous  coal,  a  slice  bar  should 
be  run  in  through  the  stoke  holes  or  furnace  doors  to 
break  up  the  fire  and  clear  out  the  air  spaces.  A  pick 
applied  from  below  is  also  very  useful  in  this  respect. 
In  the  use  of  anthracite  coal  the  pick  alone  should  be 
used  ;  the  breaking  up  of  the  surface  of  such  fire, — as 
it  does  not  amalgamate  or  run  together,  forming  a 
crust  like  the  bituminous, — prevents  the  regular  uni- 
form combustion  by  allowing  too  much  air  to  enter 
among  the  disturbed  parts  of  the  coal,  it  requiring 
considerable  time  for  them  again  to  unite  in  regular 
ignition  after  being  once  disturbed.  It  is  very  impor- 
tant that  no  part  of  the  grate  bars  be  left  bare,  as  the 
admission  of  cold  air,  through  such  space,  deadens  the 
fire,  and  cools  the  flues.  It  has  been  ascertained  of 
late,  that  better  results  are  obtained  by  admitting  air 
through  a  number  of  small  holes  in  the  furnace  doors, 
on  the  plan  of  W.  Wye  Williams,  Esq.,  of  England. 

No  two  furnaces  should  be  fired  at  the  same  time; 
the  fresh  coal  of  the  one  should  be  fairly  ignited  before 
a  new  supply  is  added  to  another,  in  order  to  keep  a 
regular  supply  of  steam.  Anthracite  coal  requires  less 
frequent  firing  than  bituminous,  but  with  either,  the 


92  THE   FIEES   WHILE   UNDEK   WAY. 

coal  should  not  be  thrown  upon  any  particular  part 
of  the  furnace,  but  uniformly  all  over  it.  Before 
firing  with  bituminous  coal,  it  is  well  to  break  up  the 
upper  crust  of  the  fire,  which  sometimes  amalgamates 
so  closely  as  to  exclude  the  proper  supply  of  air.  The 
trouble  with  most  firemen  is,  that  they  are  disposed  to 
heap  their  fires  too  much,  particularly  in  front,  some- 
times half  way  to  the  crowns  ;  this  they  do  for  three 
reasons :  first,  because  they  suppose  the  larger  the  fire 
the  greater  the  supply  of  steam;  second,  the  more 
coal  there  is  piled  in  at  one  time,  the  less  frequent 
they  will  have  to  fire  ;  and  third,  it  requires  much  less 
labor  to  shovel  the  coal  into  the  mouth  of  the  furnace, 
than  to  supply  it  uniformly,  all  over  the  grates.  No 
coal  larger  than  one's  fist  should  be  allowed  to  enter 
the  furnace,  nor  in  cleaning  the  fires,  should  more  than 
one  be  cleaned  at  the  same  time,  which  should  be  done 
at  stated  intervals,  unless  it  so  happens,  that  they  all 
or  many  of  them,  have  got  so  dirty  that  a  further  sup- 
ply of  coal  is  useless,  when  the  engine  can  be  throttled 
off  a  little  while  the  cleaning  is  going  on.  In  cleaning 
anthracite  fires,  care  should  be  taken  not  to  reduce 
them  too  low,  otherwise  they  will  take  a  long  time  to 
recover. 

In  cleaning  fires,  as  well  as  when  supplying  them, 
the  furnace  doors  should  not  be  kept  open  longer  than 
necessary,  admitting  an  undue  supply  of  cold  air ;  and 
the  party,  therefore,  who,  performing  his  duty  as  well, 
does  it  the  quickest,  is  the  best  fireman. 

The  slower  a  steamer  runs  the  greater  distance  she 
will  perform  with  the  same  amount  of  fuel,  provided 
she  has  not  an  adverse  tide  or  head  winds  to  contend 
with  ;  with  men-of-war,  therefore,  it  often  occurs  that 
the  saving  of  fuel  is  a  more  important  consideration 


PATCHING    BOILERS.  93 

than  high  speed,  and  for  this  reason  the  consumption 
of  coal  is  reduced  far  below  what  would  be  required 
to  keep  the  vessel  up  to  her  maximum  speed.  This 
can  be  done  in  two  ways :  either  by  shutting  off  a  por- 
tion of  the  furnaces  entirely,  by  shutting  the  ash  pit 
doors  and  closing  up  the  cracks  around  them  with  wet 
ashes,  or  else  reducing  the  quantity  of  coal  consumed 
in  each,  by  covering  the  back  part  of  the  grates  with 
a  thick  layer  of  ashes.  When  the  diminution  in  the 
quantity  of  coal  is  not  very  large,  this  latter  plan  is 
the  better,  by  retaining  the  original  heating  surface  at 
the  same  time  that  the  combustion  of  coal  is  allowed 
to  go  on  very  slowly,  an  end  very  desirable  to  secure. 
When,  however,  the  reduction  in  coal  is  very  consid- 
erable, some  of  the  furnaces  can  be  shut  off,  while  the 
back  ends  of  the  grates  of  the  remainder  can  be  kept 
covered  with  ashes.  Men-of-war  sometimes  proceed  at 
half  or  less  speed,  and  as  a  large  extent  of  boiler  sur- 
face occasions  considerable  loss  from  radiation,  in  such 
cases  it  will  be  more  economical  to  shut  off  some  of  the 
boilers  and  continue  with  a  moderate  supply  of  fuel  in 
the  remainder.  The  furnaces  and  ash  pits  of  the  boil- 
ers shut  off  should  be  closed  tightly,  to  prevent  cold 
air  from  passing  in  to  cool  the  surfaces  of  the  other 
boilers,  or  to  injure  the  draft. 

After  a  boiler  is  shut  off,  the  steam  should  not  be 
allowed  to  escape,  but  to  remain  in  it  and  condense,  to 
freshen  the  water. 

Patching  Boilers. 

Inasmuch  as  all  things  constructed  by  human  hands 
are  liable  to  decay,  steam  boilers  are  not  exempt  from 
this  infallible  law ;  they  therefore  frequently  require 
to  be  patched,  new  stay  bolts  and  braces  to  be  put  in, 


94  PATCHING    BOILERS. 

old  rivets  cut  out  and  replaced  with  new  ones,  &c.  In 
patching  boilers,  wherever  the  defective  part  can  be 
reached  so  as  to  work  at  it  well,  it  is  best  to  cut  it  out 
and  rivet  a  patch  on,  calking  the  seams ;  but  as  this 
cannot  always  be  done,  the  most  common  practice  is 
to  put  a  patch,  over  the  defective  part,  securing  it  with 
bolts  and  nuts,  or  tap  bolts,  and  making  the  joint  with 
stiff  putty,  composed  of  white  and  red  lead,  and  a 
small  quantity  of  fine  iron  borings.  A  piece  of  sheet 
lead  fitted  over  the  place  to  be  patched,  will  answer 
for  the  pattern  to  make  the  patch  by,  which,  however, 
before  the  joint  is  made,  should  be  fitted  snugly  to  its 
place  while  hot. 

Owing  to  imperfection  in  the  iron,  small  cracks  are 
sometimes  discovered  in  the  flues  or  other  parts  of  the 
boiler,  subject  to  a  high  temperature.  Should  these 
not  be  more  than  two  or  three  inches  in  length,  they 
can  be  stopped  by  drilling  holes  and  putting  in  three 
or  four  small  rivets,  hammering  the  heads  well  down 
so  as  to  cover  the  crack. 

A  leaky  stay-bolt,  or  rivet,  has,  like  the  toothache, 
but  one  sure  remedy,  and  that  one  is  to  cut  it  out  and 
put  in  a  new  one. 

In  cutting  out  a  stay-bolt  fitted  with  a  socket,  the 
latter  can  usually  be  saved  and  retained  in  its  place, 
ready  to  receive  another  bolt ;  but  sometimes  a  screw 
bolt  is  cut  out  which  has  to  be  replaced  with  a  socket 
bolt,  and  as  this  may  be  in  such  part  of  the  boiler 
which  cannot  be  reached  by  the  arm,  or  tongs,  a  very 
good  plan  to  get  the  socket  in  its  place,  is  to  pass  a 
string  through  both  holes  and  secure  the  ends,  drop- 
ping the  centre  down  and  hauling  it  out  through  a 
hand  hole ;  cut  the  string  in  two,  pass  the  ends  through 
the  socket,  join  them  together  again,  and  haul  the 


FLUES   AND   ASH   PITS.  95 

socket  to  its  place.  In  the  fitting  of  sockets,  it  is  very 
important  that  they  should  be  the  exact  distance  be- 
tween the  sheets,  with  the  ends  filed  square,  otherwise 
the  sheets  will  be  drawn  out  of  shape. 

Sweeping  Flues. 

One  of  the  most  disagreeable  parts  of  the  duties  is 
that  of  cleaning  flues,  from  the  fact  of  its  dirtying 
every  thing  round  about  or  in  the  vicinity  of  the  boil- 
ers, the  slightest  draft  being  sufficient  to  waft  the  light 
dry  ashes  in  every  direction.  A  little  water  sprinkled 
on  them  before  they  are  hauled  out  of  the  connections 
or  smoke-boxes  will  prevent  this  in  a  measure,  the 
damper  and  ash-pit  and  furnace  doors  being  closed,  to 
prevent  the  men  from  being  suffocated  who  go  inside. 
The  lower  flues,  particularly,  are  apt  to  leak  a  little, 
and  the  salt  water,  mixing  with  the  ashes,  forms  a  solid 
mass,  which  can  only  be  removed  by  being  cut  out, 
the  flue  brush  being  of  no  avail.  The  hammer  and 
chisel,  and  long,  sharp-pointed  bars,  and  sledge,  are 
best  adapted  to  the  purpose.  In  the  use  of  these 
instruments,  care  should  be  taken  that  they  be  not 
driven  through  the  metal  or  under  the  seams. 

Ash  Pits. 

The  ash  pits  should  be  cleaned  out  every  watch, 
and  the  ashes  thrown  overboard,  picking  out  first  any 
lumps  of  coal  that  may  have  fallen  among  the  ashes. 
When  not  running  at  full  speed,  a  portion  of  the  cin- 
ders may  be  thrown  upon  the  fires  again,  after  damp- 
ing them  with  a  little  water.  So  also  should  fine 
bituminous  coal  be  dampened  before  being  supplied 
to  the  furnaces,  the  arguments  to  the  contrary  not- 


96  STAYS   AND    GKATE    BAES. 

withstanding ;  for  though  it  does  take  a  little  heat  from 
the  fire  to  evaporate  the  water  mixed  with  the  coal,  a 
saving  is  effected,  by  preventing  the  coal  from  being 
drawn — particularly  in  boilers  with  strong  draft — 
through  the  flues  and  lodged  in  the  connections,  or  out 
of  the  smoke-pipe.  No  more  water,  however,  should 
be  put  on  the  coal  than  just  sufficient  to  dampen  it. 

Smoke-pipe  Stays 

Require  to  be  looked  to  occasionally,  when  made 
of  rope,  as  they  grow  a  little  slack  from  time  to  time. 
These  should  always  be  adjusted  while  the  pipe  is  hot ; 
otherwise,  if  they  be  set  up  while  the  pipe  is  cool,  the 
expansion  after  it  becomes  heated  will,  in  all  proba- 
bility, "  carry  "  either  the  stays  themselves  away,  or 
the  band  securing  them  to  the  pipe.  In  a  gale  of 
wind,  when  the  ship  is  rolling  heavily,  these  stays 
should  be  looked  to,  in  order  to  tighten  any  of  them 
that  may  have  become  slack,  so  as  to  throw  the  strain 
alike  on  all.  Hemp  rope  is  a  very  inferior  article  for 
such  purpose  as  stays  for  smoke  pipes,  and  we  can  see 
no  good  reason,  unless  it  be  prejudice,  (which  is  always 
a  good  reason  to  those  under  such  influence,)  why  it 
has  been  so  long  retained.  Good  wire  rope  looks  bet-' 
ter,  is  cheaper,  and  will  last  a  great  deal  longer,  and 
requires  much  less  attention. 

Grate  Bars,  &c. 

When  fitted  new,  are  usually  allowed  plenty  of 
play,  both  fore  and  aft  and  sideways,  to  allow  for  ex- 
pansion after  they  become  heated.  The  spaces  at  the 
end  of  the  bars,  however,  become  choked  up  with 
ashes,  which  become,  by  and  by,  so  hard  as  to  form 


BROKEN   AIR-PUMP.  9? 

almost  a  solid  mass,  defeating  the  objects  for  which 
they  were  left.  These  spaces,  therefore,  in  port, 
should  be  cleaned  out  occasionally. 

Ash  pits,  in  port,  should  also  be  well  cleaned  and 
painted,  to  prevent  oxidation.  At  sea,  no  water  should 
be  thrown  into  them  upon  the  ashes,  but  they  should 
be  kept  as  dry  as  possible.  With  these  precautions, 
thej  will  last  as  long  as  other  parts  of  the  boiler. 
Boilers  unused  for  any  considerable  time  should  be 
kept  dry  of  water,  and  have  fires  made  occasionally  in 
the  ash  pits,  to  evaporate  all  interior  deposit  of  damp- 
ness— the  neglect  of  this  precaution  is  the  sole  cause 
of  the  oxidation  and  deterioration  of  all  boilers  when 
not  in  use. 


Broken  Air-Pump. 

Should  the  air-pump  become  broken  in  an  irrepar- 
able manner,  and  the  engine  be  a  single  one,  there  is 
but  one  thing  that  can  be  done,  and  that  is  to  work 
non-condensing.  If  there  be  two  engines,  we  have 
three  resorts:  to  work  the  broken  engine  non-conden- 
sing, to  disconnect  from  the  crank  pin  and  proceed 
with  one  engine,  or,  if  there  be  facilities  on  board,  to 
join  the  exhaust  of  both  engines  with  a  pipe,  and  use 
one  air-pump  and  one  condenser  for  both  engines. 
This  latter  plan  was  tried  very  successfully  for  a  short 
run  on  board  the  U.  S.  Steam  Frigate  "Powhatan," 
on  the  China  station,  in  the  summer  of  1855.  Peculiar 
facilities  were,  however,  offered  in  this  case,  as  the  ex- 
haust side  pipe  of  each  engine  had  a  man-hole  in  it,  to 
which  the  connecting  pipe  was  joined. 

In  running  under  such  circumstances,  care  should 
be  taken  not  to  overload  the  air-pump. 


$8  CYLINDEK   HEAD    AND    SELECTION    OF    COAL. 


Broken  Cylinder  Head. 

"Water  may  be  worked  over  into  the  cylinder  sud- 
denly, from  boilers  foaming  badly,  or  otherwise,  faster 
than  it  can  escape  through  the  water  valves,  and  being 
nearly  non-compressible,  something  must  give  way,  the 
cylinder  head,  or  bottom,  being  the  most  likely  thing  to 
go.  In  such  an  event,  if  there  be  a  spare  one  on  board, 
put  it  on  ;  if  not,  while  the  old  one  is  being  repaired,  if  it 
be  reparable,  the  following  plan  can  be  resorted  to ; 
Disconnect  the  steam  and  exhaust  valves  from  the 
damaged  end  of  the  cylinder,  if  the  engine  be  fitted 
with  poppet .  valves,  and  let  the  atmospheric  pressure 
force  the  piston  in  one  direction,  the  steam  being  used 
for  the  opposite  direction.  Should  the  engine  be  fitted 
with  a  slide  valve,  close  up  the  opening  into  the  dam- 
aged end  of  the  cylinder,  by  fitting  in,  steam-tight  and 
in  a  substantial  manner,  a  block  of  soft  wood.  This 
should  not,  however,  be  resorted  to,  except  in  cases  of 
great  emergency.  Cylinder  heads  should  have  man- 
hole plates  of  less  strength  than  the  heads  ;  this  would 
prevent  the  destruction  of  heads  in  all  cases. 

TJie  selection  of  Coal. 

The  kinds  and  qualities  of  coals  are  so  varied  that 
no  general  rules  can  be  given  for  their  selection,  but 
there  is  one  point,  however,  which  we  think  will  not 
be  disputed,  and  that  one  is,  whenever  there  is  a 
choice,  the  only  sure  plan  is  to  select  the  best ;  for, 
though  its  first  cost  may  be  a  little  more,  it  will  prove 
to  be  the  cheapest  in  the  end.  What  economy  is  there 
in  purchasing  one  coal  because  it  can  be  obtained  10 


SAFETY    VALVE.  99 

or  15  per  cent,  cheaper  than  another,  when  there  will 
be  burned,  to  produce  the  same  effect,  from  20  to  25 
per  cent,  more  than  would  be  burned  by  the  better 
kind  ?  Yet  this  is  a  thing  of  daily  occurrence.  But, 
regardless  of  the  money  view,  there  are  other  disad- 
vantages attending  the  use  of  the  inferior  coal.  From 
the  fact  of  there  being  more  burned,  the  firemen  have 
more  to  supply  to  the  furnaces,  and  it  requires,  on 
their  part,  greater  care  and  attention  to  keep  the  fires 
in  good  order  ;  thus  imposing  extra  duty  on  a  portion 
of  the  ship's  crew  whose  energies  are  usually  overtaxed. 
Besides,  to  convey  the  vessel  a  given  distance,  an  extra 
quantity  has  to  be  taken  on  board,  which,  in  the  case 
of  merchant  ships,  diminishes  their  freight  capacity,  or, 
in  war  ships,  lumbers  the  deck  with  a  useless  number 
of  bags. 

Some  boilers  are  best  adapted  to  bituminous  coals, 
others  to  anthracite,  and  the  one  or  the  other  of  these 
coals  which  should  be  selected,  depends  upon  the  cir- 
cumstances, therefore,  for  which  they  are  intended. 

In  the  selection  of  coals,  it  is  an  object  to  obtain 
those  free  as  possible  from  earthy  impurities.  Slate, 
and  such  like  matter,  is  to  be  avoided.  Sulphur  in 
bituminous  coals  makes  them  the  more  liable  to  spon- 
taneous combustion.  So  also  receiving  them  on  board 
wet  will  endanger  spontaneous  ignition.  Coals  which 
have  been  exposed  a  long  while  to  the  rays  of  the  sun, 
particularly  in  tropical  climates,  undergo  a  gradual 
decay,  reducing  their  evaporative  qualities. 

Safety   Valve. 

Steam,  when  once  commencing  to  blow  off,  will 
not  cease  when  the  pressure  has  fallen  to  the  pressure 


100  SAFETY   VALVE. 

due  to  that  for  which  the  safety  valve  is  loaded,  but 
will  continue  to  blow-off  until  the  pressure  has  fallen 
some  pounds  below  this.  This  is  owing  to  the  increased 
area  which  the  steam  has  to  act  upon  when  the  valve 
is  open  over  what  it  has  when  the  valve  is  closed,  oc- 
casioned by  the  bevel  of  the  valve  face.  In  a  heavy 
sea,  the  safety  valve  may  be  forced  open  for  a  short 
time,  even  when  the  pressure  is  below  that  for  which 
the  valve  is  loaded,  by  the  oscillation  of  the  ship. 


CHAPTER  V. 

MISCELLAiraOUS. 

The  Theory  of  the  Paddle  Wheel;  the  Radial  compared 
with  the  Feathering  Wheel. 

To  all  those  whose  minds  have  a  tendency  to  probe 
beyond  the  superficial  crust  of  any  thing  that  may  be 
presented  to  their  consideration,  the  theory  of  the  ac- 
tion of  the  paddle  wheel  on  the  water  must  be  one  of 
interest,  and  any  thing,  therefore,  tending  to  make 
this  subject  the  more  clear,  cannot  fail  to  receive  the 
proper  attention  and  a  careful  perusal. 

In  regard  to  the  paddle  wheel,  many  theories  have 
been  advanced,  some  of  them  so  positively  absurd  that 
it  is  difficult  for  us  to  conceive  how  they  ever  found 
their  way  into  print.  Even  in  reference  to  the  subject 
of  centre  of  pressure  of  the  paddles,  such  rules  as  the 
following  have  been  put  forth  from  quarters  to  which 
we  should  have  looked  for  more  correct  information : 

"  The  circle  described  by  the  point  whose  velocity 
equals  the  velocity  of  the  ship,  is  called  the  rolling  cir- 
cle, and  the  resistance  due  to  the  difference  of  velocity 
of  the  rolling  circle  and  the  centre  of  pressure  is  that 
which  operates  in  the  propulsion  of  the  vessel."  *  *  * 

Rule :  "  From  the  radius  of  the  wheel  subtract  the 
radius  of  the  rolling  circle,  to  the  remainder  add  the 
depth  of  the  paddle  board,  and  divide  the  fourth 


102  THEOKY    OF   THE   PADDLE   WHEEL. 

power  of  the  sum  by  four  times  the  depth ;  from  the 
cube  root  of  the  quotient  subtract  the  difference  be- 
tween the  radii  of  the  wheel  and  the  rolling  circle,  and 
the  remainder  will  be  the  distance  of  the  centre  of 
pressure  from  the  upper  edge  of  the  paddle.  The 
diameter  of  the  rolling  circle  is  very  easily  found,  for 
we  have  only  to  divide  5280  times  the  number  of  miles 
per  hour  by  60  times  the  number  of  strokes  per  min- 
ute, to  get  an  expression  for  the  circumference  of  the 
rolling  circle,  or  the  following  rule  may  be  adopted : 
Divide  88  times  the  speed  of  the  vessel  in  statute  miles 
per  hour,  by  3.1416  times  the  number  of  strokes  per 
minute ;  the  quotient  will  be  the  diameter  in  feet  of 
the  rolling  circle." 

Now,  then,  I  suppose  no  one  who  has  given  the  sub- 
ject the  slightest  attention  would  imagine,  for  one  mo- 
ment, that  so  long  as  the  immersion  remained  constant,  a 
difference  in  the  slip  of  a  common  radial  wheel  would 
make  a  difference  in  the  centre  of  pressure  of  the  pad- 
dles ;  yet  if  any  one  will  take  the  trouble  to  work  out 
the  centre  of  pressure  of  any  wheel  by  the  above  rule 
with  different  slips,  he  will  find  the  centre  of  pressure 
continually  changing.  To  suppose  such  a  thing  to  be  true 
would  be  as  absurd  as  to  suppose  the  centre  of  pres- 
sure of  a  plank  immersed  vertically  in  a  stream  moving 
at  the  rate  of  10  miles  per  hour,  to  be  in  a  different 
place  from  what  it  would  be  should  the  stream  move 
at  the  rate  of  5  miles  per  hour. 

We  have  thought  it  advisable,  therefore,  to  go  into 
this  subject  the  more  fully,  and  give  the  following  as 
an  illustration  of  our  views : 

It  is  generally  admitted  that  the  total  loss  of  effect, 
or  power,  in  the  common  radial  wheel,  is  the  sum  of 
the  losses  of  the  oblique  action  on  the  water  and  the 


THEOEY  OF  THE  PADDLE  WHEEL. 


103 


slip.  The  former  is  calculated  by  taking  the  mean  of 
the  squares  of  the  sines  of  the  angle  of  incidence  at 
which  the  paddles  strike  the  water,  or  which  is  the 
same  thing,  the  means  of  the  squares  of  the  cosines  of 
the  angles  of  the  arm  and  water ;  for  one  angle  is  the 
complement  of  the  other.  This  will  appear  plain  from 
an  inspection  of  figure  1.  A  C  is  the  arm,  making 


FIG,  l 


an  angle  at  C,  with  the  vertical  line  C  A' ;  A  B,  the 
breadth  of  the  paddles,  and  E  F,  the  surface  of  the 
water.  Now,  it  is  manifest,  that,  inasmuch  as  the  ves- 
sel is  moving  in  a  horizontal  direction,  the  line  B  D  at 
right  angles  to  that  direction,  represents  the  only  por- 
tion of  the  paddle  A  B  that  is  efficient  in  propelling 
the  vessel,  and  the  line  A  D  represents  that  portion 
of  the  paddle  that  tends  to  lift  the  vessel  out  of  the 
water,  which,  consequently,  as  it  produces  no  propul- 
sive effect,  must  be  entirely  lost.  But  the  line  A  B, 
being  the  breadth  of  the  paddle,  we  will  suppose  rep- 
resents the  pressure  it  exerts  on  the  water,  which, 


104  THEOEY    OF   THE   PADDLE    WHEEL. 

according  to  the  resolution  of  forces,  is  divided  into 
two  other  pressures.  A  D,  tending  to  lift  the  vessel, 
is  the  useless  pressure,  and  B  D,  at  right  angles  to  the 
vessel's  path,  is  the  efficient  pressure,  or  the  portion 
that  is  utilized  in  propelling  the  vessel.  Power,  how- 
ever, is  not  composed  of  pressure  alone,  but  is  com- 
pounded of  pressure  and  velocity,  and  as  the  velocities 
of  the  columns  of  water,  having  A  D  B  D  for  the  base 
depend  upon  the  lengths  of  those  lines  respectively ; 
that  is  to  say,  if  we  double  the  length  of  either  one 
of  them,  say  B  D,  for  instance,  diminishing  the  angle 
at  C,  we  not  only  double  the  quantity  of  water  dis- 
placed in  any  given  time,  but  it  is  also  displaced  with 
double  the  velocity  ;  the  power,  therefore,  developed 
is  the  product  of  these  two,  or  as  the  square.  Hence, 
it  follows  that,  since  A  D  represents  the  useless  pres- 
sure, the  square  of  that  line  must  represent  the  useless 
or  lost  power ;  or,  more  correctly,  the  loss  of  useful 
effect,  and  the  square  of  B  D,  the  power  that  is  applied 
to  propelling  the  vessel.  Now,  then,  considering  A  B 
to  be  unity,  the  square  of  B  D  will  be  the  square  of  the 
natural  sine  of  the  angle  BAD,  and  the  square  of 
A  D  the  square  of  the  natural  sine  of  the  angle  A  B  D ; 
but  the  triangles  A  B  D,  A  C  D',  being  similar,  the 
angles  at  B  and  C  are  equal,  and  the  loss  of  effect  is, 
therefore,  simply  represented  by  the  square  of  the  sine 
of  the  angle  that  the  oblique  arm  makes  with  the  per- 
pendicular ;  but  as  the  angle  is  continually  changing, 
as  the  arm  moves  through  the  water,  we  have  to  take 
the  mean,  and  the  more  numerous,  therefore,  the  divi- 
sions are  made,  the  nearer  correct  will  be  the  result. 

Thus,  supposing,  as  per  figure  2,  a  wheel  26  f&et 
diameter,  from  outside  to  outside  of  paddles,  6  feet, 
immersion  of  lower  edge  of  paddles,  and  20  inches 


THEOEY    OF   THE   PADDLE    WHEEL. 


105 


breadth  of  paddles,  the  loss  from  oblique  action  is 
calculated  as  follows,  the  arc  being  divided  into  divi- 


Fio.  2. 


sions  of  5°  each,  which  are  considered  sufficiently  nu- 
merous for  practical  purposes : 


106 


THEORY   OF   THE   PADDLE   WHEEL. 


Anglefa 
of 
Incidence. 

8ii.es  of  the 
Angles  of 
Incidence. 

55° 

.81915 

.33550  =  half  of  the  square  of  sine 

50° 

.76604 

.58681  =  square  of  sine. 

45° 

.70711 

.50000                  " 

40° 

.64279 

.41317  ^             " 

35° 

.57358 

.32899  = 

30° 

.50000 

.25000  =              « 

25° 

.42262 

.17860  = 

20° 

.34202 

.11697  =             ' 

15° 

.25882 

.06698  =             ' 

10° 

.17365 

.03015  =              " 

5° 

.08716 

.00759  =              " 

0° 

.00000 

.00000  =              " 

5° 

.08716 

.00759  =             " 

10° 

.17365 

.03015  = 

15° 

.2J5882 

.06698  =              " 

20° 

•  .34202 

.11697  =             " 

25° 

.42262 

.17860  =             " 

30° 

.50000 

.25000  =             " 

35° 

.57358 

.32899  =              " 

40° 

.62279 

.41317  =             " 

1 

45° 

.70711 

.50000  =             " 

1 

50° 

.76604 

.58681  =              " 

i 

55° 

.81915 

.33550  =  half  of  the  square  of  sine. 

22 

5.62952 

As  22  :  5.62952  :  :  100  :  25.588  per  cent,  of  the 
power  applied  to  the  wheels. 

Half  of  the  square  of  the  sine  at  the  angle  of  55°  is 
taken,  because  the  paddle  in  that  position  is  only  half 
immersed,  consequently  only  half  the  power  can  be 
expended  on  it  as  if  entirely  immersed ;  and  the  angles 
are  put  down  twice,  because  the  loss  is  the  same  after 
the  paddle  leaves  the  vertical  position  as  before  it 
reaches  it.  The  power  in  the  latter  case  being  ex- 
pended in  forcing  the  water  downwards,  and  in  the 
former  case  in  lifting  the  water,  neither  of  which  as- 
sists in  propelling  the  vessel,  the  only  tendency  being 
to  lift  the  bow,  and  depress  the  stern. 

Slip. 

The  loss  of  effect  from  slip  is  usually  considered 
the  difference  between  the  velocity  of'  the  centre  of 
pressure  of  the  paddles  and  the  velocity  of  the  vessel. 


THEORY  OF  THE  PADDLE  WHEEL.        107 

Thus,  if  the  velocity  of  the  centre  of  pressure  of 
the  paddles  exceeds  the  velocity  of  the  vessel  by  18 
per  cent,  of  the  speed  of  the  paddles,  18  per  cent,  is 
considered  the  loss  of  effect  from  slip.  This  we  con- 
ceive to  be  an  error.  The  18  per  cent,  is  the  difference 
between  the  velocity  of  the  paddles  and  the  velocity 
of  the  vessel,  nothing  more;  and,  therefore,  simply 
represents  the  slip  in  per  cent,  of  the  paddles,  but  not 
the  loss  of  effect  from  slip.  For  it  has  been  shown 
that  the  loss  resulting  from  the  oblique  action  of  the 
paddles  on  the  water,  is  as  the  squares  of  the  sines  of 
the  angles  of  incidence,  and  if  we  suppose  the  wheel 
to  be  immersed  to  its  axis,  the  loss  from  this  cause  on 
the  paddle,  when  in  the  horizontal  position — the  angle 
being  90° — is  100  per  cent.,  and  if  the  loss  from  slip 
of  18  per  cent,  be  added  to  that,  we  have  a  total  loss 
of  118  per  cent.,  or  more  than  the  power  applied.  A 
positive  absurdity.  Or,  again,  supposing  the  vessel  to 
be  made  fast  to  the  wharf,  the  difference  between  the 
velocity  of  the  paddles  and  the  velocity  of  the  vessel 
will  be  100  per  cent.,  and  as  the  loss  from  oblique  ac- 
tion cannot,  from  this  circumstance,  be  any  less  than 
if  the  vessel  was  moving  ahead,  there  will  be  a  total 
loss  of  the  power  applied  to  the  wheels  of  125.588  per 
cent.  A  result  equally  absurd. 

At  the  angle  of  45°  it  has  been  seen  that  only 
.70711  part  of  the  area  of  the  paddle  is  effective  in 
propelling  the  vessel,  and  that  at  this  angle  the  ve- 
locity of  the  column  of  water  driven  aft  is  only  .70711 
of  what  it  is  when  the  whole  area  of  the  paddle  is 
effective,  hence  the  power  expended  in  slip  =.70711 
X  .70711  =  5,  the  slip  in  the  vertical  position  being 
considered  1. 

Now,  then,  if  18  per  cent,  is  the  loss  from  slip 


108  THEORY    OF   THE   PADDLE    WHEEL. 

when  the  paddle  is  in  the  vertical  position — which 
must  be  the  case  if  its  velocity  exceeds  that  of  the 
vessel  by  18  per  cent,  of  its  own  speed — from  what 
has  just  been  shown,  at  the  angle  of  45°,  the  loss  can- 
not be  more  than  half  of  18,  or  9  per  cent.  The  same 
reasoning  will  demonstrate,  that  at  the  angle  of  30° 
the  loss  from  slip  cannot  exceed  £  of  18,  or  13.5  per 
cent. '  Thus  we  see  the  loss  from  slip  goes  on  decreas- 
ing from  the  vertical  to  the  horizontal  position,  at 
which  place  it  becomes  nothing.  We  can,  therefore, 
approximate  very  nearly  to  the  true  loss  in  the  present 
radial  wheel,  by  taking  the  mean  of  these  losses  at  the 
angles  as  laid  down  in  figure  2.  They  are  as  follows : 


At 

0° 

= 

18 

-      .0000 

=  18 

per 

cent. 

<( 

5° 

—  • 

18 

-      .1366 

=  17.8634 

a 

a 

u 

10° 

— 

18 

-      .5427 

=  17.4573 

tc 

u 

11 

15° 

— 

18 

-    1.2056 

=  16.7944 

a 

a 

11 

20° 

— 

18 

-    2.1055 

=  15.8945 

a 

u 

11 

25° 

—  • 

18 

-    3.2148 

=  14.7852 

u 

tt 

11 

30° 

— 

18 

-    4.5000 

=  13.5000 

u 

it 

u 

35° 

—  : 

18 

•    5.9218 

=  12.0782 

ti 

it 

n 

40° 



18 

-    7.4371 

=  10.5629 

tt 

« 

u 

45° 



18 

—    9.0000 

-    9.0000 

u 

a 

u 

50° 



18 

-  10.5626 

=    7.4374 

u 

tt 

u 

55° 

=: 

18 

-  12.078 

=    5.9220 

u 

u 

1 

2 

138.3343 

2 

Doubled  for  both  Bides  of  the  vertical  ) 
position                                       \     ~ 

-  276.6686 

18.0000 

294.6686 

294.6686 
— 22 =  13.394  per  cent,  of  the  power  applied  to 

the  wheels. 


THEORY  OF  THE  PADDLE  WHEEL.        109 

The  same  result  is  obtained  as  follows : 

100.000  (power  applied)  —  25.588  (oblique  action) 

X  18  per  cent,  (slip  of  the  vertical  paddle)  =  13.394 

per  cent. 

We  have,  therefore,  for  a  total  loss  in  this  radial 

wheel,  25.588  +  13.394  =  38.982  per  cent,  of  the  power 

applied  to  it. 

Feathering   Wheel. 

\ 

Let  us  take  a  feathering  wheel,  of  the  same  di- 
ameter of  centre  of  pressure,  i.  e.,  26  feet  4  inches  in 
diameter  from  outside  to  outside  of  paddles — same 
immersion,  breadth,  and  number  of  paddles,  and  see 
how  it  compares  with  this. 

It  is  conceived  by  some  that  the  only  losses  in  this 
kind  of  wheel  are  the  friction  of  the  eccentrics,  <fec., 
and  the  slip,  but  there  is  another  loss  with  deep  im- 
mersions, or  light  slips,  occasioned  by  the  drag  of  the 
paddles  as  they  enter  and  leave  the  water. 

In  figure  3,  the  paddles  are  supposed  to  be  verti- 
cal from  the  time  they  enter  until  they  leave  the 
water,  and  the  positions  of  the  arms  will  be  seen  at 
the  degrees  there  laid  down.  The  perpendicular  lines 
drawn  across  the  arcs  are  intended  to  represent  the 
breadth  of  the  paddles.  It  is  plain  that  while  the  axis 
of  the  paddle  moves  from  A  to  B,  it  moves  horizon- 
tally the  distance  A  C,  and  vertically  the  distance 
C  B,  and,  supposing  the  vessel  to  be  moving  with  the 
same  velocity  as  the  paddles,  it  will  travel  the  distance 
A  B,  while  the  paddle  travels  horizontally  the  distance 
A  C.  Now,  the  distance  A  C  being  less  than  A  B, 
the  paddle  in  this  position  cannot  be  giving  out  any 
power,  but  must  be  keeping  the  vessel  back,  by  carry- 


110 


THEOEY    OF   THE   PADDLE   WHEEL. 


ing  a  column  of  water  before  it,  the  base  of  which  is 
equal  to  the  area  of  the  paddles,  and  the  length  equal 
to  the  difference  in  the  lengths  of  the  two  lines. 


FIG.  3. 


If  A  B  be  represented  by  unity,  A  C  will  be  rep- 
resented by  the  natural  sine  of  the  angle  ABC,  and 
if  the  arc  be  supposed  to  be  divided  into  an  infinite 


THEOEY  OF  THE  PADDLE  WHEEL.        Ill 

number  of  parts,  or  composed  of  an  infinite  number  of 
straight  lines,  A  B  will  be  at  right  angles  to  A  D,  and,  by 
consequence,  the  angle  ABC  will  be  equal  to  the  angle 
DAE;  and  as  the  sine  of  B  represents  the  distance 
traveled  horizontally  by  the  paddle,  the  sine  of  D  A  E 
must  manifestly  represent  the  same  thing,  but  the  sine 
of  D  A  E  is  the  cosine  of  D,  which  therefore  repre- 
sents the  horizontal  velocity  of  the  paddle  at  the  angle 
of  50°,  its  circular  velocity  being  1.  The  difference 
between  these  two  lines  is,  therefore,  the  loss  from 
drag,  supposing  there  to  be  no  slip,  but  as  all  paddle 
wheels  must  have  some  slip,  when  they  are  propelling 
a  vessel,  the  line  A  B,  diminished  by  the  amount  of 
slip,  will  represent  the  distance  traveled  by  the  vessel, 
and  the  loss  from  drag  will  therefore,  instead  of  being 
the  difference  between  A  B  and  A  C,  be  the  difference 
between  a  fraction  of  A  B  and  the  whole  of  A  C,  de- 
pendent upon  the  amount  of  slip.  If  this  fraction  of 
A  B  be  just  equal  to  A  C,  the  loss  from  drag  in  this 
position  becomes  0 ;  for,  though  the  paddle  be  giving 
out  no  power  to  the  vessel,  it  occasions  no  resistance 
to  the  vessel's  progress  through  the  water,  because  it 
is  moving  horizontally  precisely  as  fast  as  the  vessel 
itself;  and  if  the  fraction  be  less  than  A  C,  the  resist- 
ance will,  of  course,  be1  on  the  after  instead  of  the  for- 
ward side  of  the  paddle,  and  it  must,  in  consequence, 
necessarily  be  assisting  in  propelling  the  vessel. 

Now,  then,  from  the  above,  it  must  be  evident  to 
any  one,  that  so  long  as  the  paddle,  after  it  enters  the 
water,  is  moving  horizontally  at  a  less  rate  than  the 
vessel,  it  cannot  be  giving  out  any  power,  but  must  be 
an  actual  resistance  to  the  vessel's  progress  through 
the  water.  Taking  figure  8,  and  giving  the  wheel  the 
same  mean  loss  from  slip>  as  the  radial  wheel,  viz.,, 


112  THEOKY   OF   THE   PADDLE    WHEEL. 

13.394  per  cent.,  we  will  ascertain  tlie  loss  from  slip 
at  the  different  angles  there  laid  down,  and  attend  to 
the  drag  afterwards,  which  is  merely  slip  in  the  oppo- 
site direction,  or  what  might  be  termed  negative  slip. 

To  give  this  wheel  the  same  mean  loss  from  slip  as 
the  radial  wheel,  it  has  to  have  on  the  arm  when  in 
the  vertical  position,  or 

At   0°        Co9ine9.                          26.225  per  cent. 

«     5°  =  .99619  -  .73775  =  25.844  "  « 

"  10°  =  .98481  -  .73775  =  24.706  "  " 

"  15°  =  .96593  -  .73775  =  22.818  "  " 

"  20°  —  .93969  -  .73775  =  20.194  "  " 

"  25°  =  .90631  -  .73775  =  16.856  "  " 

"  30°  =  .86603  -  .73775  =  12.828  "  " 

"  35°  =  .81915  —  .73775  =    8.140  "  " 

«  40°  =  .76604  -  .73775  =    2.829  "  " 

"  45°  =                                     0.000  "  " 

"  50°=                                       0.000  "  " 

"  55°=                                       0.000  "  " 

134215 
2 

Doubled  for  both  Bides  of  the  vertical  ?  O  A  Q  /I  Q  A 

position,  \  ZO0.4OU 

26.225 


294.655 

—  =  13.394  per  cent,  of  the  power  applied  to 

2i2i 

the  wheel  lost  by  slip. 

At  the  angle  of  55°  the  paddle  is  .445  part  im- 
mersed, but,  being  so  near,  we  have  taken  it  at  a  half 
for  simplicity,  and  for  like  reason  have  considered  the 
paddle  at  50°  entirely  immersed. 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  above,  that  the  paddle, 
from  the  time  it  enters  the  water  until  after  it  passes 


THEORY  OF  THE  PADDLE  WHEEL.        113 

45°,  is  traveling  horizontally  at  a  less  rate  than  the 
vessel,  and  the  same  effect  ensues  as  it  rises  out  of  the 
water  ;  there  must,  therefore,  be  a  loss  from  drag  or 
negative  slip.  Let  us  see  what  this  amounts  to. 


.       .     -  .57358 
At  55  =  -     2     -  =  8.208  per  cent. 

«  50°  =  .73775  —  .64279  =  9.496  "   " 
"  45°  =  .73775  -  .70711  =  3.064  "   " 


20.768 

2 

Doubled  for  entering  and  leaving,  41.536 

41.536 
22      =  1.933  per  cent. 

We  have,  then,  for  a  total  loss  in  this  wheel,  slip 
(13.394  per  cent.)  -f  drag  (1.933  per  cent.)  =  15.327 
per  cent,  of  the  power  applied  to  it. 

The  total  loss  in  the  radial  wheel  having  been 
shown  to  be  38.982  per  cent,  (and  in  the  feathering 
wheel  15.327  per  cent.),  we  have  23.655  per  cent, 
in  favor  of  the  feathering  wheel.  But  of  the  whole 
power  applied  to  the  engines,  about  20  per  cent,  is  ex- 
pended in  overcoming  friction  of  ditto,  friction  of  load 
on  working  journals,  working  air  and  feed  pumps  with 
their  loads,  &c.  Consequently,  only  80  per  cent, 
reaches  the  wheels,  and  23.655  per  cent,  of  80  per 
cent,  equals  18.924  percent,  of  the  total  power  applied 
to  the  engines  in  favor  of  the  feathering  wheel. 

To  stand  off  against  this,  we  have  the  friction  of 
the  eccentrics,  <fec.  (an  amount  that,  perhaps,  can  only 
be  estimated)  extra  weight  and  wear  and  tear  of  the 
wheels. 

It  will  be  seen  also  from  the  above,  that  the  differ- 
ence between  the  velocity  of  the  feathering  wheel  and 


114  CENTRE    OF   PRESSURE. 

the  vessel  being  26.235  per  cent,  of  the  speed  of  the 
wheel,  and  the  difference  between  the  velocity  of  the 
radial  wheel  and  the  vessel  being  18  per  cent,  of  its 
speed,  it  follows  that,  making  the  same  number  of 
revolutions,  the  speeds  of  the  vessels  will  be  as  73.775 
to  82,  or  as  1.00  to  1.11 ;  consequently,  the  speed  of 
the  feathering  wheel  will  have  to  exceed  the  speed 
of  the  radial  wheel  11  per  cent,  to  give  the  vessel  the 
same  velocity,  but  this  speed  of  the  wheel  is  as  shown — 
consequent  upon  there  being  less  resistance  to  the  pad- 
dles— attained  by  an  expenditure  of  18.924  per  cent, 
less  power. 

Cent/re  of  Pressure. 

The  centre  of  pressure  of  a  rectangular  plane  im- 
mersed in  a  fluid,  the  upper  extremity  of  which  is  even 
with  the  surface  of  the  fluid,  is  %  from  the  bottom ; 
but,  inasmuch  as  the  pressure  is  as  the  depth,  when  its 
upper  extremity  is  below  the  surface  of  the  fluid,  this 
law  no  longer  holds  good.  To  ascertain  the  centre  of 
pressure  in  such  case,  "  Jamieson  on  Fluids  "  gives  the 
following  practical  rule  deduced  from  elaborate  math- 
ematical calculations : 

"  Divide  the  difference  of  the  cubes  of  the  extremi-  ' 
ties  of  the  given  plane  below  the  surface  of  the  fluid, 
by  the  difference  of  their  squares,  and  two-thirds  of 
the  quotient  will  give  the  distance  of  the  centre  of 
pressure  below  the  surface,  from  which  subtract  the 
depth  of  the  upper  extremity,  and  the  remainder  will 
show  the  point  in  the  centre  line  of  the  plane  in  which 
the  centre  of  pressure  is  situated." 

This  rule  can  be  applied  directly  to  the  feathering 
vrheel,  by  taking  the  mean  immersion  of  the  paddles 


CENTKE   OF   PEES8UEE.  115 

as  they  move  through  the  water,  and  assuming  figure  3 
to  be  of  the  same  diameter  from  outside  to  outside  of 
paddles,  as  figure  2,  viz  :  26  feet,  we  find  the  mean 
immersion  of  the  lower  edges  of  the  paddles,  after  their 
upper  extremity  gets  below  the  surface,  to  be 

(29.23  +  37.84+45.59  -f  52.44  -f  S8.32  -f-  63.09  +  67.02  -f  69.78  +  11.44) 
19 

2  -f  72  =  55.  87  inches,  and  upper  edge  35.87  inches. 
The  mean  centre  of  pressure  of  the  paddles  in  these 

/  55  873  _  85  873  \ 

positions  is  (  ssVp—  35  87*  H  =  46-59  ~"  35-8/7  =  10^2 
inches  from  top,  or  9.28  inches  from  bottom,  and  the 
mean  centre  of  pressure  from  the  time  the  paddle 
enters  until  it  leaves  the  water, 


23 

In  the  radial  wheel,  however,  as  the  outer  ex- 
tremity of  the  paddle  moves  more  rapidly  than  the 
inner  extremity,  and  as  the  resistance  is  as  the  square 
of  the  velocity,  the  centre  of  pressure  must  be  consid- 
erably nearer  the  outer  extremity  on  this  account. 
One-third  from  the  bottom,  in  this  case,  is,  therefore, 
probably,  not  much  out  of  the  truth  ;  but  as  a  portion 
of  the  paddle  only  part  of  the  time  is  immersed,  we 
take  the  mean  of  the  third  of  that  portion  and  a  third 
of  the  whole  breadth  of  the  paddle  during  the  time  it 
is  entirely  immersed. 

S)-2  =  6.37  inches  from 


the  bottom,  showing  the  centre  of  pressure  under  these 
circumstances  to  be  (8.52  —  6.37  =  )  2.15  inches  nearer 
the  lower  edge  of  the  paddle  in  the  radial  than  it  is  in 
the  feathering  wheel. 


116  THE   SCREW   PROPELLER. 

Practiced  Remarks  on  the  Foregoing. 

From  what  lias  been  shown,  it  would  appear  that 
the  use  of  the  feathering  wheel  over  the  radial  wheel, 
from  the  great  saving  it  effects,  would  lead  to  its  uni- 
versal adoption ;  but,  unfortunately,  the  practical  diffi- 
culties are  such  that  its  use  is  confined  within  very 
narrow  limits.  The  increased  weight  of  the  wheel, 
occasioned  by  the  eccentrics,  levers,  arms,  <fec.,  required 
to  work  the  paddles,  amounting,  in  some  cases,  to 
several  tons,  causing  the  pillow-block  brasses  to  wear 
away  very  rapidly,  is  a  sad  objection,  to  say  nothing 
of  the  excessive  friction  they  produce.  Besides,  the 
pins  operating  as  the  axis  about  which  the  paddles 
vibrate  are  found  to  wear  away  very  rapidly,  requiring 
not  only  to  be  replaced  frequently,  but  the  noise  and 
jar  occasioned  from  the  wear  becomes  very  objec- 
tionable. The  latter  objection,  however,  can  be  re- 
moved by  the  use  of  lignumvitse  pin  bearings. 

The  Screw  Propeller. 

The  great  advantages  derivable  from  the  successful 
adaptation  of  the  screw  propeller,  particularly  to  ves- 
sels of  war,  became  well  understood  in  its  early  his- 
tory, and  inventive  genius  set  to  work  thenceforth  to 
perfect  this  important  invention ;  all  kinds  of  propel- 
lers sprang  into  use,  many  of  them  possessing  neither 
the  merit  of  novelty  nor  usefulness.  One,  two,  three, 
four,  five,  six-bladed,  true  screws,  expanding  pitch  and 
no  screw  at  all,  are  among  the  number  that  have  been 
tried  experimentally  and  practically  since  the  intro- 
duction of  the  screw  propeller,  and,  strange  as  it  may 
appear,  notwithstanding  the  large  share  of  attention  it 
has  received,  the  theory  of  the  screw  propeller  is  yet  not 


THE   SCREW   PEOPELLEE.  117 

generally  understood ;  but,  to  our  mind,  this  is  owing 
to  one  great  cause ;  and  that  is,  to  the  very  important 
fact,  that  those  who  have  undertaken  to  explain  and 
illustrate  it,  have  apparently  thought  it  more  impor- 
tant to  give  the  history  and  accounts  of  the  experi- 
ments— though  both  very  useful  in  themselves — than 
to  explain  the  leading  features  and  the  laws  governing 
its  action.  Besides,  a  practical  engineer  does  not  wish, 
or  if  he  did,  has  not  the  time  to  spare,  to  examine 
large  volumes  to  find  what  might  be  condensed  into  a 
few  pages.  We  have,  therefore,  determined  to  make 
our  remarks  on  this  subject  brief,  and  to  confine  them 
to  those  points  which  we  think  are  the  more  impor- 
tant, allowing  the  student  to  build  upon  them  for  him- 
self. 

The  surface  of  a  screw  blade  may  be  supposed  to 
be  generated  by  a  line  revolving  around  a  cylinder,  at 
right  angles  to  the  axis,  at  the  same  time  that  it  moves 
along  it,  and  should  the  revolving  motion  be  a  constant 
ratio  to  the  motion  lengthwise,  it  will  be  a  true  screw. 
Should  such  a  screw  as  this,  Fig.  4,  be  developed  upon 
a  plane  it  will  form  a  FM.  4. 

right-angled  triangle,  in 
which  A  B  is  the  pitch, 
A  C  the  circumference 
described  by  the  extrem- 
ity of  the  blade,  and  B  C 
the  line  described  by  any 
point  in  the  periphery 
of  the  blade  by  one  con- 
volution of  the  thread.  To  make  this  the  more  clear, 
suppose  the  triangle  A  B  C  to  be  wound  round  a  cyl- 
inder, having  a  circumference  equal  to  A  C,  and  sup- 
pose at  C  we  start  to  trace  a  line  around  the  cylinder, 


118 


THE   SCEEW    PEOPELLEE. 


moving  along  it  at  the  same  time  in  a  constant  ratio, 
and  that  when  we  have  gone  all  the  way  around,  ar- 
riving over  the  starting  point  C,  (C  and  A  will  be  one 
and  the  same  point  in  the  case  supposed)  we  have 
reached  the  point  B,  C  B  will  be  the  line  described, 
which  is  technically  termed  the  directrix,  and  A  B, 
being  the  distance  moved  in  the  direction  of  the  axis, 
will  be  the  pitch.  Should  the  line  A  B  be  a  curve, 
instead  of  a  straight  line,  the  screw  would  have  an  in- 
creasing or  expanding  pitch,  instead  of  an  uniform 
pitch.  Figure  5  will  illustrate  this:  Let  the  curve 
FIG.  5.  B  C  be  the  curve  of  the  blade, 

and  the  dotted  lines  B  #,  C  c 
be  tangents  drawn  to  this 
curve,  it  will  be  seen  that,  at 
different  points  in  the  curve 
B  C,  the  velocity  of  rotation 
remaining  constant,  the  ve- 
locity lengthwise  of  the  axis 
c  A  B  varies,  growing  greater 
as  we  approach  B.  This  is  what  is  termed  an  expand- 
ing pitch ;  that  is  to  say,  the  pitch  at  the  anterior  por- 
tion of  the  blade,  is  less  than  the  pitch  at  the  posterior 
portion.  The  object  of  such  a  pitch  is  this :  the  ante- 
rior portion  of  the  blade  striking  upon  water  at  rest, 
encounters  the  resistance  due  to  a  solid  body  moving 
through  water  at  rest,  but  this  portion  of  the  blade 
puts  the  water  in  motion,  it  being  a  yielding  medium, 
so  that  when  the  posterior  portion  of  the  blade  follows 
it  has  to  act  on  water  in  motion,  instead  of  water  at 
rest,  and  in  order,  therefore,  to  make  the  resistance 
due  to  all  parts  of  the  blade  alike,  the  pitch  of  the  pos- 
terior portion  of  the  blade  is  increased  to  the  extent 
of  the  motion  given  to  the  water  by  the  anterior  por- 
tion. 


THE    SCREW    PEOPELLER.  119 

To  measure  the  pitch  of  a  screw  blade,  did  it  ex- 
tend all  the  way  round  the  shaft  to  a  full  convolution 
of  the  thread,  all  we  would  have  to  do,  would  be  to 
measure  along  the  line  of  the  shaft  from  any  point  in 
the  blade  to  any  point  directly  over  it,  and  the  dis- 
tance would  be  the  pitch,  or  the  distance  traveled  in 
the  direction  of  the  axis  by  one  convolution  of  the 
thread;  but  since  in  practice,  in  order  to  secure  the 
proper  resisting  area,  a  full  convolution  of  the  thread 
is  not  required — a  very  small  fraction  of  it  being 
used — it  becomes  necessary,  therefore,  to  find  the  pitch 
from  this  fraction.  Taking  figure  4,  for  instance,  let 
B  b  be  the  length  of  the  blade,  measured  on  the  peri- 
phery, and  A  C  the  circumference  described  by  the 
extremity  of  the  blade,  B  b  will  be  the  fraction  of  the 
blade  used,  and  B  a  the  fraction  of  the  pitch.  We 
know,  therefore,  that,  starting  from  B,  and  traveling 
along  the  line  B  £,  when  we  arrive  at  the  point  5,  we 
have  traveled  along  the  axis  the  distance  B  &,  and  from 
this  we  can  ascertain  what  distance  will  be  moved 
along  the  axis  by  continuing  all  the  way  round  until 
we  arrive  at  C,  which  will  be  the  pitch.  Practically, 
we  can  measure  this  in  two  ways :  measure  the  length 
B  b  of  the  blade,  and  also  B  #,  the  length  in  line  with 
the  axis,  we  have  then  two  legs  of  a  right-angled  tri- 
angle, from  which  we  ascertain  the  third,  a  b.  Now, 
then,  knowing  the  circumference  described  by  the  ex- 
tremity of  the  blade,  we  derive  the  following  simple 
proportion : 

As  a  b  :  the  whole  circumference  :  :  B  a  :  the  whole 
pitch. 

Or  we  proceed  thus:  Lay  a  straight-edge  across 
the  face  of  the  propeller,  at  right  angles  to  the  axis, 
and  a  bevel  on  the  periphery  of  the  blade,  and  look 


120  THE   SCREW   PROPELLER. 

them  out  of  wind,  the  angle  enclosed  by  the  two  legs 
of  the  bevel  will  be  the  angle  B  b  a,  which  is  termed 
the  "  angle  of  the  propeller ; "  and  hence,  if  B  b  be 
supposed  unity,  the  fraction  of  the  pitch  of  the  one 
blade  will  be  (B  a)  the  natural  sine  of  the  angle  B  b  a, 
therefore,  knowing  the  angle  B  b  a,  and  the  length  of 
the  blade  B  £,  we  ascertain  the  pitch  thus : 

As  cosine  b  :  whole  circumference  of  propeller  : : 
sine  1)  :  to  whole  pitch. 

The  pitch  can  also  be  determined  by  construction, 
without  any  calculation  whatever.  Thus,  supposing 
the  line  a  b  represents  the  whole  circumference  of  the 
propeller,  we  draw  the  line  B  b  at  the  angle  to  a  b  as- 
certained from  measurement,  and  erect  the  perpendic- 
ular a  B,  which  will  give  the  pitch  required. 

In  a  true  screw,  it  matters  not  whether  we  take 
the  angle  at  the  periphery  or  any  other  part  of  the 
blade  ;  for,  though  the  angle  will  be  different,  increas- 
ing as  we  approach  the  centre,  the  pitch  will  be  the 
same,  it  only  being  necessary  to  know  the  circumfer- 
ence at  the  point  where  we  measure  the  angle. 

Should  the  blade  not  be  a  true  screw,  but  an  ex- 
panding pitch,  we  have  to  take  the  angle  at  two  or 
more  points,  by  drawing  tangents  to  the  curve,  and 
take  the  mean,  for  the  mean  angle  of  the  blade.  Thus, 
in  figure  5,  the  mean  of  the  angles  B  b  A  and  c  C  A 
will  give  the  mean  angle  of  the  blade. 

Some  propellers  are  made  to  expand  from  hub  to 
periphery,  instead  of  from  anterior  to  posterior  portion 
of  the  blade. 

To  ascertain  the  pitch  of  such  a  propeller,  take  the 
mean  of  the  angles  at  several  points  in  the  blade,  and 
proceed  as  above.  In  order  to  ascertain  the  pitch  of 
any  propeller,  it  is  always  proper  to  take  the  angles  at 


THE   SCKEW   PEOPELLER.  121 

two  or  more  points  in  the  blade,  from  which  we  learn 
whether  it  expands  from  hub  to  periphery,  whether  it 
be  true  screw,  or  no  screw  at  all. 

The  fraction  of  the  pitch,  as  we  have  explained  it 
above,  is  the  fraction  of  the  pitch  of  one  blade,  but  as 
screw  propellers  usually  have  two,  three,  four,  six,  <fec., 
blades,  constituting  fractions  of  a  double-threaded, 
treble-threaded,  four-threaded,  six-threaded,  <fec.,  screw, 
the  sum  of  these  constitute  the  fraction  of  what  is 
usually  termed  the  fraction  of  the  pitch  of  the  screw ; 
that  is  to  say,  if  the  screw  have  three  blades,  and  the 
fraction  of  the  pitch  of  one  of  those  blades  be  -J^  the 
real  fraction  of  the  pitch  will  be  3  times  TV,  or  £ ; 
for  it  evidently  matters  not,  as  far  as  this  is  concerned, 
whether  the  screw  be  in  one,  or  divided  into  a  dozen 
parts. 

How  to  lay  down  a  Propeller. 

Knowing  the  diameter,  number  of  blades,  and  frac- 
tion  of  pitch,  we  intend  to  use,  we  proceed  thus  : 

Taking  figure  6,  for  in-    Q  FIQ.  e. 

stance,  draw  the  line  A  C, 
equal  the  circumference  of 
the  extremities  of  the  blades, 
and  from  A  erect  the  per- 
pendicular A  B,  equal  the 
pitch ;  join  B  C.  Now,  then, 
supposing  we  desire  the  pro- 
peller to  have  four  blades,  and  the  fraction  of  the  pitch 
to  be  £,  lay  off  B  #,  equal  to  T'T  B  A,  and  draw  a  c, 
parallel  to  AC.  a  c  will  be  the  circumference  of  the 
extremity  of  one  blade  viewed  as  a  disc.  Then,  taking 
figure  Y,  we  describe  the  circle  a  b  c,  equal  A  C,  figure 


122  THE   SCEEW    PROPELLEK. 

6,  and  also  the  smaller  circle,  equal  the  circumference 
FIG.  7.  of  the  hub  of  the  propeller  ;  divide  the 
larger  circle  into  four  equal  parts,  and, 
from  the  centres  thus  obtained  lay  off 
a  d,  Ji  i,  bf,  e  <?,  each  equal  to  a  c,  fig- 
ure 6,  and  draw  lines  from  each  of  these 
points  to  the  centre,  terminating  in  the 
hub  ;  such  will  be  the  projection  of  a  four-bladed,  true 
screw  propeller,  viewed  from  the  stern,  from  which 
the  longitudinal  elevation  can  be  drawn.  The  dimen- 
sions of  the  sections  of  the  blade  depend  upon  the 
diameter  of  the  propeller,  the  material  of  which  it  is 
constructed,  and  the  pressure  it  has  to  sustain. 

Centre  of  Pressure. 

All  solid  bodies  moving  through  a  fluid  have  a  cer- 
tain point  called  the  centre  of  pressure,  which  is  the 
point  where  the  outer  and  inner  pressures  just  exactly 
balance.  In  a  screw  propeller,  the  radius  of  the  cir- 
cle, which  is  equal  to  half  the  area  of  the  whole  circle, 
described  by  the  periphery  of  the  blades,  is  the  centre 
of  pressure  from  centre  of  motion.  Thus,  if  a  propeller 
be  16  feet  diameter,  the  area  of  the  circle  described  by 
the  extremity  of  the  blades  =  201.06  square  feet,  and 
the  radius  of  the  circle,  having  an  area  equal  to  half 
this,  is  5  feet  T-f  inches,  consequently  the  centre  of 
pressure  in  this  propeller  is  5  feet  Y-f  inches  from  the 
centre  of  shaft. 

The  centre  of  pressure  can  also  be  ascertained  in 
the  following  manner : 

1+4  +  9+16+25+36+49+64        9fu 
( 1  —I !-         -I 1 1 1  =  ^  =  5  feet  8 

1  +2  +  3+4+5  +  6  +  7  +  8 
inches,  nearly  as  before. 


THE   SCREW   PROPELLER.  123 

The  line  per  sketch  represents  the  radius  of  the 
propeller,  and  is  divided  into  divisions  of  1  foot  each ; 
the  more  numerous,  of  course,  the  divisions  are  made, 
the  nearer  correct  will  be  the  result. 

In  these  calculations,  the  area  of  the  hub  is 
neglected. 

The  above  rule  holds  good  so  long  as  there  is  no 
variation  in  the  pitch  from  hub  to  periphery ;  but 
should  the  pitch  vary  in  this  direction,  the  velocity  of 
the  column  of  water  driven  aft  from  different  parts  of 
the  blade  will  also  vary,  effecting  the  centre  of  pres- 
sure correspondingly. 

Slip. — The  slip  of  a  screw  propeller  is  the  differ- 
ence between  the  velocity  of  the  propeller  and  the 
velocity  of  the  ship. 

EXAMPLE. — A  propeller  having  20  feet  pitch  makes 
TO  revolutions  per  minute,  which  propels  the  vessel  at 
the  rate  of  12  knots  an  hour,  required  the  slip,  the  sea 
knot  containing  6082 J-  feet? 

ANSWER. 

20X*TO  X  60— 84000=  speed  of  propeller  in  ft.  per  hour. 
6082|xl2=Y2992=         "     vessel         "         " 
11008=  slip  in  feet. 

84000  :  11008  :  :  100  :  13.1  =  slip  in  per  cent,  of 
the  speed  of  the  propeller. 

Thrust. — A  propeller  being  put  in  revolution  throws 
a  column  of  water  off  from  the  blades  in  line  with  the 
axis  of  the  propeller,  which,  as  explained  above,  is  the 
slip ;  the  resistance  of  this  water  acting  upon  the  pro- 
peller blades,  tends  to  force  the  shaft  inboard,  which 


124  THE   SCEEW   PROPELLER. 

resistance  has  to  be  sustained  by  heavy  bearings  called 
thrust  bearings,  and  the  amount  of  this  resisting  pres- 
sure is  called  the  thrust.  In  order,  in  practice,  to  as- 
certain the  extent  of  the  thrust,  an  instrument  called 
the  dynamometer  is  attached  to  some  part  of  the  shaft. 
This  instrument  consists  of  a  combination  of  levers  or 
weighing  beams,  to  the  final  end  of  which  is  attached 
a  spring  balance,  or  scale,  which  indicates  the  pressure 
in  pounds ;  and  this  pressure  being  augmented  by  the 
number  of  times  the  levers  are  multiplied,  gives  the 
total  pressure,  or  thrust  on  the  shaft.  And  the  total 
thrust  being  multiplied  into  the  distance  moved  over 
in  a  unit  of  time  by  the  vessel,  shows  the  actual  power 
absorbed  in  propelling  the  vessel. 

In  the  application  of  the  dynamometer,  care  must 
be  taken  that  it  receives  the  entire  thrust  of  the  shaft 
before  the  indication  of  the  scale  is  noted. 

Did  the  propeller  and  steam  piston  travel  through 
the  same  distance  in  any  given  time,  and  were  all  the 
power  applied  to  the  piston  transmitted  to  the  water 
through  the  propeller,  the  total  pressure  upon  the 
steam  piston  and  the  thrust  of  the  propeller  would  be 
identical,  but  since  such  is  never  the  case,  we  ascertain 
the  theoretical  thrust,  thus : 

Total  effective  pressure  on  piston  in  Ibs.  x  2  length  of  stroke  In  ft,  x  No.  of  revola.  per  min. 
Pitch  of  propeller  in  feet  x  numher  of  revolutions  per  minute. 

—  Theoretical  thrust  in  Ibs.  The  difference  between 
this  and  the  actual  thrust,  shows  the  amount  lost  in 
friction  of  engines,  propeller,  and  load,  overcoming 
resistance  to  edge  of  propeller  blades,  working  pumps, 
etc.  The  loss  from  slip  is  independent  of  this. 


TIIE   SCKEW   PKOPELLEE. 


125 


Strain  upon  a  Screw  Propeller-blade. 

We  can  best  illustrate  this  by  an  example. 

Given,  circumference  of  centre  of  pressure  of  a  3 
bladed  propeller,  30.9  feet ;  distance  from  hub  to  cen- 
tre pressure  41  inches  ;  pitch  22.5  feet ;  thrust  12700 
pounds  :  required,  the  strain  upon  each  blade  at  the  hub. 

SOLUTION. 

Let  F  G  H  be  the 

development  of  the  he- 
lix on  a  plane,  draw  B  D 
at  right  angles  to  F  H, 
and  A  E  at  right  angles 
to  G  H.  Trigonometri 
cally,  we  ascertain  the  c 
angles  at  A  and  D  to  be 

each  =  3*7°  9',  and  at  C  and  B  to  be  each  =  52°  5',  and 
the  lengths  of  the  lines  A  E,  B  D,  to  be  relatively  as 
1.000  to  1.237. 

Now,  inasmuch  as  the  whole  thrust  can  be  supposed 
to  be  concentrated  in  the  centre  of  pressure  of  the  blade, 
and  as  the  12700  Ibs.  is  in  a  line  with  the  axis,  it  follows 
that,  if  the  line  A  E  represents  the  direction  and  amount 
of  this  thrust,  the  line  B  D,  at  right  angles  to  the  pro- 
peller blade  at  the  centre  of  pressure,  according  to  the 
resolution  of  forces,  will  represent  the  resultant  of  the 
pressures  on  the  blade,  or  the  total  pressure  tending 
to  break  it.  But  inasmuch  as  there  are  three  blades, 
the  pressure  will  be  divided  equally  among  them  all ; 
therefore,  each  has  to  sustain  but  a  third  of  this  pres- 
sure; hence 
12700  X  1.237  (proportion  B  D  bears  to  A  E)  _  ^^ 

3 
Ibs.  pressure  on  each  blade  at  the  centre  of  pressure. 


126  THE   SCEEW   PROPELLER. 

The  pressure  at  the  hub  on  each  blade  equals 
5236  Ibs.  X  41  ins.  =  214676  Ibs.  acting  with  the 
leverage  of  one  inch. 

EXAMPLE  2o. — Suppose,  in  example  1,  the  breadth 
of  the  blades  at  the  hub  to  be  32  inches,  and  the  pro- 
peller to  be  made  of  composition,  capable  of  sustaining 
a  pressure  per  square  inch  of  cross-section  of  520  Ibs., 
acting  through  the  leverage  of  1  inch ;  required,  the 
mean  thickness  of  the  blade  at  the  hub  ? 

SOLUTION. — The  strength  of  beams  is  directly  as 
their  breadths  and  the  squares  of  their  depths,  and  in- 
versely as  their  lengths.  In  the  example  before  us, 
the  propeller  resolves  itself  into  a  simple  beam ;  we 

have,  then, =  12.9  inches  =  square  of  the 

thickness,  and  V  12.9  =  3.59  inches  in  thickness. 

Helicoidal  Area. — As  has  already  been  shown,  the 
development  of  the  helix  on  a  plane  is  the  hypothe- 
nuse  of  a  right-angled  triangle,  having  the  pitch  of  the 
screw  for  the  height;  and  the  circumference,  corre- 
sponding to  the  radii  of  the  helix,  for  the  base.  Now, 
as  the  propeller  can  be  supposed  to  have  an  infinite 
number  of  helices,  each  one  becoming  longer  and  longer 
as  we  approach  the  periphery,  which  alter  the  lengths 
at  the  same  time,  of  the  hypothenuse  and  base  of  the 
triangle,  we  will  suppose  the  propeller  to  be  divided 
into  a  number  of  concentric  rings,  taking  the  centre 
line  of  each,  for  the  helix  or  hypothenuse  of  the  trian- 
gle ;  the  circumference  corresponding  to  radii  of  said 
helix  for  the  base,  and  the  pitch  for  the  height,  from 
which  we  have  all  the  elements  required  for  the  cal- 
culation. 


THE    SCREW    PROPELLER. 


127 


To  make  this  the  more  clear,  take  the  triangle 
BAG;  the  lines  B  1,  B  2,  B  3,  B  C,  represent  the 


helices  having  the  corresponding  circumferences  of 
A  1,  A  2,  A3,  and  A  C.  Now,  then,  if  these  helices 
be  the  lengths  of  the  rings,  or  elements  for  one  entire 
convolution  of  the  thread,  all  we  have  to  do  is  to  mul- 
tiply it  by  the  breadth  of  the  element,  which  will  give 
the  area  for  one  convolution ;  but  as  only  a  fraction 
of  a  convolution  is  used  in  practice,  we  multiply  by 
this  fraction,  whatever  it  may  be,  and  the  product 
gives  the  area  for  the  part  used.  This  mode  of  calcu- 
lation is,  of  course,  only  an  approximation ;  but  when- 
ever the  blade  is  divided  into  a  considerable  number 
of  elements,  say  6  inches  in  breadth  each,  the  result 
obtains  sufficiently  near  the  truth  for  all  practical  pur- 
poses. 

The  following  is  a  calculation  on  the  screw  of  the 
U.  S.  Steam  Frigate  "Wabash,"  and  which  agrees, 
within  a  very  small  fraction,  of  the  area  as  projected 
upon  a  plane : 


THE   SCREW   PEOPELLEE. 


Diameter  of  screw,  IT  feet  4  inches;  diameter  of 
hub,  2  feet  4  inches. 


1 

*   tf  <S> 

J* 

£  . 

-  ~ 
^  a 

A 

s 

Pitch. 

•o 

||| 

fill 

«J 

ll 

111 

if 

3 

ll 

||1S 

H° 

1^ 

|| 

1 

•s 

A 

B 

C 

D 

E 

F 

G 

H 

2.B  x  3.1416 

VAM-C* 

DxE 

FxG 

ft. 

ft. 

ft. 

ft. 

ft. 

ft. 

sqr.  feet. 

23 

1.5 

9.42 

24.89 

*/T 

7.11 

.5 

3.555 

•« 

2. 

12.56 

26.20 

7.48 

3.74 

» 

2.5 

15.70 

27.85 

7.96 

3.98 

«< 

3. 

18.84 

29.73 

8.49 

4.245 

« 

3.5 

21.99 

31.82 

9.09 

4.545 

" 

4. 

25.13 

34.07 

9.73 

4.865 

«' 

4.5 

28.27 

36.44 

10.41 

5.205 

" 

5. 

31.41 

38.93 

11.12 

5.56 

" 

5.5 

34.55 

41.50 

11.86 

5.93 

« 

6. 

37.69 

44.15 

"/SI 

12.12 

6.06 

«  * 

6.5 

40.84 

46.87 

M 

12.86 

6.43 

« 

7. 

43.98 

49.63 

y»i 

13.54 

6.77 

" 

7.5 

47.12 

52.43 

V16 

13.78 

6.89 

«« 

8. 

50.27 

55.27 

V4 

13.82 

6.91 

" 

8.5 

53.40 

58.14 

V5 

11.63 

5.815 

*  Helicoidal  area  of  one  side  of  both  blades  =  80.5  square  feet. 

Practical  Remarks  on  the  Screw  Propeller. 

In  the  application  of  power  to  the  propulsion  of 
the  hulls  of  vessels  through  water,  a  portion  of  the 
effect  is  lost  by  the  instrument  through  which  it  is 
transmitted.  In  the  commoji  radial  wheel  this  loss  of 
effect  is  compounded  of  two  losses,  slip,  plus  oblique 
action ;  in  the  feathering  wheel,  slip,  plus  drag,  and  in 
the  screw  propeller,  slip,  plus  friction  of  the  propeller 
blades  on  the  water.  That  instrument,  therefore,  which, 
possessing  no  more  practical  disadvantages  than  other 

*  For  the  calculations  of  the  friction  of  a  screw  surface  on  the  water,  see 
Isherwood's  calculation  on  the  "  San  Jacinto,"  (Journal  of  the  Franklin  Insti- 
tute, Third  Series,  Vol.  XXL,  p.  349,)  or  on  the  "  Arrogant,"  (Applcton's  Me- 
chanics' Magazine,  Vol.  I.,  p.  156,)  from  which  the  form  for  the  above  table  is 
taken. 


THE   SCREW   PBOPELLEE.  129 

instruments,  and  which  has  the  sum  of  its  losses  the 
least,  must  be  the  most  economical  propelling  instru- 
ment. The  feathering  wheel,  from  what  we  have 
seen,  would  present  itself  very  conspicuously  to  our 
eye  as  being  the  best  instrument  within  our  knowledge; 
but,  unfortunately,  the  practical  difficulties  are  such  as 
to  preclude  its  universal  adoption.  The  loss  from  ob- 
lique action  in  the  common  radial  wheel,  particularly 
where  the  diameter  is  comparatively  small  and  the  dip 
of  the  paddles  considerable,  amounts  to  an  important 
percentage  of  the  total  power  of  the  engines;  and 
since  this  loss  in  the  screw  propeller  does  not  exist,  but 
is  replaced  by  one  of  much  smaller  magnitude,  viz., 
friction  of  the  blades,  it  follows,  that  were  the  slip  of 
the  two  instruments  alike,  the  screw  propeller  would 
be  the  more  economical.  In  practice,  however,  with 
the  screw  propeller,  when  contending  against  head 
winds,  or  other  increased  resistance,  the  slip  is  increased 
to  a  very  serious  extent  In  fact,  in  some  cases  it  has 
occurred,  when  the  engines  were  going  ahead  at  nearly 
full  speed,  the  vessel  stood  nearly  still.  On  the  other 
hand,  however,  when  the  sails  are  set  to  a  fair  wind, 
the  slip  of  the  propeller  is  materially  reduced,  while 
the  thrust  remains  unaltered.  The  increased  slip 
when  contending  with  head  winds  is  also  experienced 
with  paddle  wheels,  but  they  are  not  affected  to  the 
same  extent  as  the  propeller,  the  increasing  or  decreas- 
ing the  resistance  with  the  latter  instrument,  not 
making  a  vast  difference  in  the  revolutions  of  the  en- 
gines (as  is  the  case  with  the  paddle  wheel)  so  long  as 
the  pressure  on  the  piston  remains  unaltered. 

In  the  application  of  the  screw  propeller,  it  is  well 
to  sink  it  as  low  as  possible  in  the  water,  in  order  that 
the  hydrostatic  pressure  above  may  be  sufficient  to 


130  THE   SCREW    PKOPELLEE. 

cause  the  water  to  flow  in  solid,  even  to  the  centre  of 
the  propeller,  which,  therefore,  having  the  proper 
resisting  medium,  is  less  liable  to  excessive  slip.  This 
will  also  prevent  the  centrifugal  action — the  throwing 
of  the  water  off  radially  from  the  centre — which  exists 
to  a  small  extent  in  some  very  aggravated  cases. 

Increasing  the  helicoidal  surface  of  the  screw  be- 
yond what  is  barely  sufficient  to  transmit  the  power 
given  to  it,  has  no  other  effect  than  to  occasion  an 
increased  loss  by  friction,  by  the  increased  surface  in- 
terposed. The  friction  of  solids  on  fluids,  unlike  solids 
on  solids,  depending  upon  the  extent  of  rubbing  sur- 
face as  one  of  the  elements.  The  object,  therefore,  to 
be  sought  after  in  practice,  is  to  make  the  sum  of  the 
loss  by  slip,  plus  friction,  as  little  as  possible,  and  this 
sum,  manifestly,  must  depend,  to  a  considerable  extent, 
on  the  amount  of  helicoidal  surface ;  but,  nevertheless, 
there  appears  to  be  no  general  rules  yet  devised,  from 
theory  or  practice,  which  can  be  used  as  a  reliable 
guide ;  different  engineers  making  considerable  differ- 
ence in  the  areas  of  propellers  applied  to  the  propulsion 
of  the  same  sized  and  modeled  steamers. 

Negative  Slip. — It  would  certainly  appear  a  very 
strange  anomaly,  were  one  on  board  a  vessel,  which  he 
should  discover  from  the  indications  of  the  log  was  mov- 
ing actually  faster  through  the  water  than  the  screw, 
there  being  no  other  propelling  instrument ;  yet  such 
has  been  apparently  the  case,  and  there  are,  perhaps,  to 
this  day,  persons — though  we  hope  they  are  very 
few — who  think  that  a  screw  propeller  may  drive  a 
vessel  faster  than  it  is  moving  itself.  There  have  been 
cases,  it  is  true,  where  the  log  has  shown  that  the  ves- 
sel was  apparently  moving  faster  than  the  screw,  which 


THE   SCREW    PROPELLER.  131 

alone  was  the  propelling  instrument,  but  that  such  a 
thing  could  be  true  is  absolutely  absurd,  and  hence 
attention  was  turned  to  discovering  the  anomaly.  It 
is  accounted  for  in  two  ways. 

When  a  body  having  a  blunt  stern  is  drawn  through 
water  at  a  high  velocity,  the  water,  not  being  able  to 
now  in  from  the  sides  of  the  body  sufficiently  rapid  to 
fill  the  vacuity  occasioned  by  its  passage,  flows  in  from 
all  other  directions,  and  a  column  of  water,  therefore, 
necessarily,  follows  in  the  wake  of  such  a  body.  This 
is  the  case  with  screw  propeller  vessels  having  blunt 
runs,  and,  by  consequence,  the  propeller,  instead  of 
acting  upon  water  at  rest,  acts  upon  water  in  motion, 
having  the  same  direction  as  the  vessel.  Now,  then, 
supposing  a  propeller,  acting  upon  water  at  rest,  to 
have  a  slip  of  10  per  cent.,  if  a  column  of  water  follow 
the  ship  with  the  velocity  of  11  per  cent,  of  the  speed 
of  the  propeller,  which  still  retains  its  ten  per  cent, 
slip,  the  log,  as  it  takes  no  cognizance  of  the  velocity 
of  this  water,  would  show  a  negative  slip  of  1  per  cent., 
i.  e.,  it  would  show  the  vessel  to  be  actually  moving  1 
per  cent,  faster  than  the  propeller,  when  in  reality  the 
latter  would  be  moving  10  per  cent,  the  faster. 

To  produce  such  a  result  as  this,  of  course,  possesses 
no  mechanical  or  other  advantage;  for  power  must 
have  been  originally  taken  from  the  engines  to  pro- 
duce the  current,  which  cannot  be  returned  to  its  full 
extent.  It  is,  therefore,  a  very  important  element  in 
the  design  of  a  screw  vessel  to  make  the  run  very 
sharp — the  lines  fine — in  order  that  the  water  may 
flow  in  solid  at  once,  to  fill  the  vacuity  occasioned  by 
the  vessel's  progress,  or  the  propeller's  revolutions. 

The  other  theory  in  regard  to  negative  slip  is  this : 
All  known  bodies  yield  to  pressure,  it  being  only 


132  ALTEKLSTG    THE    PITCH. 

necessary  in  order  to  cause  the  amount  of  yield  to  be 
measurable  to  make  the  pressure  sufficiently  great. 
It  is  hence  conceived,  that  when  a  screw  propeller  is 
in  motion,  the  pressure  of  the  water  on  the  blades  causes 
them  to  spring,  thereby  increasing  the  pitch;  conse- 
quently, in  calculating  its  speed  through  the  water,  if 
we  use  the  true  pitch,  instead  of  the  pitch  assumed, 
while  it  is  in  motion,  the  velocity  given  to  it  will  be 
too  small,  and  may  be  less  than  the  velocity  of  the 
vessel. 

We  would,  however,  remark,  that  negative  slip  in 
a  screw  propeller,  unassisted  by  sails,  is  more  imaginary 
than  real,  and  could  only  exist  under  very  aggravated 
circumstances,  for  a  screw  propeller  usually  has  about 
20  per  cent,  slip,  at  least,  and  to  reduce  this  to  nothing, 
even  under  the  conditions  set  forth  above,  would  be 
rather  a  perversion  of  circumstances. 

Altering  the  Pitch. 

Propellers  are  sometimes  constructed  in  such  a 
manner  that  the  pitch  can  be  altered,  from  time  to 
time,  by  altering  the  angle  of  the  blades,  which  are 
made  adjustable  in  a  large  spherical  hub.  Thus,  if  it 
be  desired  to  increase  the  pitch,  increase  the  angles  by 
turning  round  the  blades ;  or  if  it  be  desired  to  de- 
crease the  pitch,  reverse  the  operation.  Such  an  ar- 
rangement, however,  in  practice,  must  be  confined 
within  very  narrow  limits,  for,  inasmuch  as  the  surface 
of  a  screw  propeller  blade,  being  that  of  a  helicoid, 
every  point  in  the  blade  must  have  a  different  angle, 
which  increases  as  the  hub  is  approached,  and  if  the 
propeller  be  constructed  so  that  all  the  angles  be 
adapted  to  one  particular  pitch,  it  is  not  very  likely 


PARALLEL   MOTION.  133 

that  they  will,  after  being  distorted,  be  adapted  to  any 
other  pitch ;  that  is  to  say,  if  the  propeller  be  a  true 
screw,  for  instance,  and  have  a  certain  angle  at  the 
periphery,  if  we  move  the  blade  so  as  to  increase  the 
angle  at  that  point  10°,  the  angle  at  every  other  point 
in  the  blade  will  also  be  increased  10°,  which  should 
not  be  the  case,  but  should  be  correspondingly  less  as 
the  hub  is  approached ;  thus,  by  this  arrangement,  we 
give  a  greater  pitch  at  the  hub  than  there  is  at  the 
periphery ;  and  if  the  operation  be  reversed,  and  we 
decrease  the  angle  at  the  periphery,  the  angle  at  the 
hub,  and  every  other  point  in  the  blade,  is  decreased 
to  precisely  the  same  extent,  thus  giving  less  pitch  at 
the  hub  than  there  is  at  the  periphery,  or  any  other 
point  in  the  blade.  We  therefore  arrive  at  this  con- 
clusion : 

That  having  three  conditions  presented  to  us,  viz., 
true  screw,  expanding  screw,  from  periphery  to  hub, 
and  expanding  from  hub  to  periphery — the  latter  two 
not  in  regular  ratio — it  is  more  than  probable  that 
one  or  the  other  of  these  must  be  found  practically  to 
be  the  superior,  and  whichever  it  may  be,  and  that 
one  adopted,  the  advantage  to  be  derived  from  alter- 
ing it,  after  it  is  once  adopted,  does  not  appear  very 
plain,  the  arguments  to  the  contrary  notwithstanding. 


Parallel  Motion. 

Parallel  motion  is  a  combination  of  bars  and  rods, 
having  for  its  object  the  guiding  of  the  piston-rod  of  a 
steam-engine  in  a  constant  straight  line,  or  as  near  a 
straight  line  as  can  be  practically  attained.  It  is  ap- 
plicable, in  different  forms,  to  any  type  of  engine,  but 


134 


PARALLEL   MOTION. 


its  adaptation  to  the  side-lever  engine  is  the  more 
general. 

We  have  constructed  figure  10  with  the  view  of 


FIG.  10. 


illustrating  its  application  to  this  type  of  engine,  and 
to  clear  it,  if  possible,  of  the  mystery  that  usually 
hangs  over  it  in  the  shape  of  formulas.  A  B  is  half 
the  length  of  the  side  lever,  vibrating  on  the  centre  B ; 
A  C,  the  side  rod  attached  to  the  cross-head  at  C ; 
G  F,  the  parallel  motion  side  rod ;  D  F,  the  parallel 
bar,  and  E  F,  the  radius  bar  vibrating  on  the  centre  E. 
The  object  to  be  attained  is  to  make  the  point  C 
travel  vertically  in  a  straight  line,  or  as  near  so  as  pos- 
sible ;  and  from  the  construction  of  the  figure,  it  will 
be  seen  that,  when  the  point  G  moves  to  the  right  the 
point  F  moves  to  the  left,  and  vice  versa ;  hence  it  is 
manifest,  that  there  must  be  some  point  H,  in  the  rod 
F  G,  which  will  describe  very  nearly  a  straight  line, 
and  if  the  lengths  G  B  and  E  F  were  equal,  that  point 
would  be  in  the  centre  of  F  G  ;  but,  since  they  are  of 
unequal  lengths,  H  must  be  in  such  a  position  that 
EFxFH^BGxGH. 


PAKALLEL   MOTION.  135 

Now,  then,  having  secured  the  point  H,  draw  the 
line  B  C  through  H,  which  will  determine  C,  the  cen- 
tre of  the  cross-head ;  and  the  triangles  B  H  G,  B  C  A, 
being  similar,  and  joined  together  in  such  manner  that, 
no  matter  how  much  the  angles  of  the  one  may  alter, 
the  angles  of  the  other  must  alter  to  precisely  the 
same  extent ;  and  hence,  these  triangles  always  remain- 
ing similar,  it  follows  that  if  the  apex  (H)  of  the  one 
moves  in  a  straight  line,  the  apex  (C)  of  the  other 
must  move  in  a  straight  line  also. 

It  matters  not  where  the  points  D  F  G  may  be 
situated,  so  long  as  D  does  not  coincide  with  C,  and 
the  figure  A  D  F  G  is  a  parallelogram ;  nor  does  it 
matter  about  the  respective  lengths  of  the  sides  of  the 
parallelogram,  so  long  asEFxFH^BGxGH. 

In  practice,  it  happens  sometimes  that  the  parallel 
motion  gets  out  of  adjustment,  the  piston  rod  perhaps 
rubbing  hard  on  one  side  of  the  stuffing-box  at  the  top 
of  the  stroke,  and  hard  on  the  opposite  side  on  the 
bottom  of  the  stroke ;  or  it  may  rub  hard  on  the  stuff- 
ing-box at  one  end  of  the  stroke,  and  be  quite  free  at 
the  other.  Such  a  result  can  be  brought  about  in 
three  ways  only :  either  the  sides  of  the  parallelogram 
A  D  F  G  have  got  out  of  parallelism,  the  radius  bar 
E  F,  of  incorrect  length  from  the  wear  of  the  brasses, 
<fec.,  or  the  centre  E  has  by  some  means  been  moved 
from  its  true  position. 

These  can  be  all  remedied  by  interposing  liners 
at  the  proper  places ;  of  course,  taking  care  about 
the  centre  A,  in  order  not  to  endanger  striking 
the  cylinder-head,  by  interposing  too  much  at  that 
point. 


136  STRENGTH    OF   MATERIALS. 

Strength  of  Materials. 

This  is  a  subject  which,  does  not  properly  come 
within  the  province  of  the  present  Notes;  but  we 
have,  however,  thought  it  well  to  devote  a  short  space 
to  it  at  this  place,  confining  ourselves  to  a  few  practi- 
cal examples. 

Seams. — The  strength  of  beams  are  to  each  other 
directly  as  their  breadths  and  square  of  their  depths, 
and  inversely  as  their  lengths. 

EXAMPLE. — The  depth  of  the  beam  of  an  engine 
75  ins.  diameter  of  cylinder,  and  7  ft.  stroke,  at  centre 
is  42  ins.,  and  using  this  as  a  standard,  required  the 
depth  of  one  for  an  engine  of  80  ins.  diameter  of  cyl- 
inder, and  8  ft.  stroke,  the  breadth,  and  also  the  maxi- 
mum pressure  on  the  steam  piston  to  remain  the  same  ? 

ANSWER.— 7  52  X  7 :  802  X  8  :  :  422 :  2293.76  ins.  == 
square  of  the  depth ;  the  square  root  of  which,  47.9 
ins.,  is  the  depth  required. 

These  figures,  of  course,  do  not  apply  to  the  truss, 
but  to  the  solid  parabolic  beam. 

Shafts. — The  strength  of  shafts  to  resist  a  trans- 
verse, or  torsional  strain,  are  to  each  other  as  the 
squares  of  their  diameters ;  for  the  reason  that,  if  the 
diameter  of  a  shaft  be  doubled,  the  quantity  of  metal  is 
increased  fourfold,  which  would  occasion  the  strength 
to  increase  as  the  square,  but  at  the  same  time  there 
being  double  the  leverage  interposed  in  consequence 
of  the  double  diameter,  which,  being  multiplied  by 
the  square  (or  4),  will  give  the  cube  (or  8). 


STRENGTH    OF   MATERIALS.  13T 

EXAMPLE. — The  shaft  of  a  steamer  is  IT  inches 
diameter;  cylinder,  T5  inches  diameter;  by  *7  feet 
stroke  ;  required  the  diameter  of  a  shaft  for  a  steamer, 
having  an  engine  of  80  inches  diameter  of  cylinder,  by 
8  ft.  stroke,  taking  the  shaft  here  given  as  the  standard, 
the  maximum  pressure  on  both  steam  pistons  to  be 
alike. 

ANSWER.— 752  x  7  :  802  X  8  :  :  IT3 :  6388.459,  the 
cube  of  the  diameter,  the  cube  root  of  which,  18.55 
inches,  is  the  required  diameter  of  the  shaft. 

This  is  about  the  diameter  of  the  shafts  used  in 
practice  for  two  engines  of  80  inches  diameter  of  cyl- 
inder, and  8  feet  stroke  each.  The  proportion  in  prac- 
tice for  a  shaft  for  a  single  engine  of  this  size,  is  about 
15.5  ins.  diameter,  which  is  a  little  more  than  half  the 
strength  of  the  above  shaft,  owing  to  the  weight  of  the 
wheels,  <fec.,  (which  have  also  to  be  sustained  by  the 
shaft)  being  more  than  half. 

Screw  Propeller  Shaft. — The  strain  on  the  shaft  of 
a  screw  propeller  is  of  two  kinds — one  in  line  with  the 
axis  tending  to  compress,  the  other  at  right  angles'  to 
the  axis  tending  to  twist  it.  And,  inasmuch  as  the 
strength  of  a  shaft  to  resist  compression,  is  much 
greater  than  that  to  resist  torsion,  we  need  only  take 
the  latter  strain  into  consideration. 

Hence,  to  ascertain  the  diameter  of  a  scr*ew  shaft, 
the  dimensions  of  the  propeller  and  thrust  being  given, 
let  A  B,  figure  11,  be  the  pitch,  B  C,  the  circumference 
at  centre  of  pressure,  and  A  C,  the  helix  for  one  con- 
volution at  centre  of  pressure.  Draw  B  D  at  right 
angles  to  A  C,  and  D  E  at  right  angles  to  B  C ;  the 
lines  D  E  and  B  E  will  be  proportionally  the  com- 
pressional  and  torsional  strains  on  the  shaft ;  hence,  if 


138  STRENGTH    OF   MATERIALS. 

B  E  be  multiplied  by  the  thrust  in  pounds,  and  divid- 
ed by  D  E,  the  quotient  will  be  the  pressure  in  Ibs., 
FIG.  IL  acting  at  the  centre  of  pressure 

of  the  blade  to  twist  the  shaft. 
This  pressure  being  multiplied  in- 
to the  leverage  of  the  centre 
of  pressure,  and  divided  by  the 
standard  of  the  metal  used,  will 
give  the  cube  of  the  shaft's  diame- 
ter, the  cube  root  of  which  will 
be  the  diameter.  But  since  the  triangles  A  C  B, 
B  D  E,  are  similar,  from  the  construction  of  the  figure, 
the  angles  being  respectively  equal,  the  sides  must  be 
proportional,  viz.  :  A  C  to  B  D,  A  B  to  B  E,  and  B  C 
to  D  E.  Therefore,  having  the  lengths  of  the  two 
sides  A  B,  B  C,  of  the  triangle  A  B  C,  we  have 

~~  x  b  ,   ,    A  .     .    , 

=  diameter  of  shaft  in  inches, 


c 
in  which  A  B  =  pitch  in  feet, 

B  C  =  circumference  at  centre  of  pressure  in 

feet, 

t  =  thrust  in  pounds, 
b  =  distance  from  centre  of  shaft  to  centre 

of  pressure  in  feet, 

c  =  practical  coefficient  of  the  metal  used 
for  the  shaft,  per  sq.  inch  of  section 
for  a  leverage  of  one  foot. 

Paddle  Shafts.  —  EXAMPLE  1.  —  Area  of  the  piston 
3848.4  sq.  ins.  ;  maximum  pressure  per  sq.  inch  40  Ibs.  ; 
stroke  10  feet;  one  engine;  required  the  diameter  of 
the  paddle  shaft,  the  practical  value  of  the  metal  being 
200  Ibs.  per  sq.  inch  of  cross-section,  with  a  leverage 
of  1  foot. 


STRENGTH    OF    MATERIALS.  139 

.                    V  8848.4  X  40  X  5 
ANSWER. --  =  15|  ins.  diameter. 

.200 

EXAMPLE  2. — Same  as  Example  1,  excepting  there 
are  two  engines  instead  of  one,  connected  at  right 
angles  ? 

ANSWER. — "With  two  engines  connected  at  90°,  the 
position  in  which  the  greatest  pressure  on  the  shaft 
will  be  mterposed  will  be  when  both  engines  are  in 
such  a  position  that  a  perpendicular,  let  fall  from  the 
centre  of  the  crank  upon  the  centre  line  passing 
through  the  centre  of  the  shaft,  will  enclose  an  angle 
of  45°,  which,  with  a  5  feet  crank,  will  give  a  leverage 
of  5  x  .70m  (nat.  sin.  of  45°)  =  3.535  feet;  hence, 
supposing  the  pressure  at  this  position  of  the  engines 
to  be  40  Ibs.  per  square  inch,  we  have 

V  3848.4  X  40  X  3.535 

-  x  2  =  17.6  ins.  diameter. 
200 


Piston  Hods. — The  piston  rod  of  a  reciprocating 
steam-engine  is  subject  alternately  to  a  tensile  and 
compressing  strain ;  and  there  is  nothing  more  absurd 
than  the  rules  given  in  books  on  the  steam-engine,  de- 
fining its  diameter  to  be  a  certain  fraction  of  the  diam- 
eter of  the  cylinder,  independent  of  all  other  elements. 
For  instance,  suppose  a  rod  of  a  certain  diameter  and 
length  to  be  just  able  to  sustain  a  certain  weight 
placed  upon  the  top  of  it,  without  deflexion ;  it  is  ab- 
surd to  suppose  that  it  would  sustain  the  same  weight 
if  the  rod  was  made  double  the  length,  retaining  the 
same  diameter ;  yet  the  rules  given  for  the  diameters 
of  piston  rods  are  regardless,  not  only  of  their  lengths, 
but  also  of  the  pressure  of  steam.  We  have,  therefore, 


140  STRENGTH    OF   MATERIALS. 

thought  it  well  to  copy  the  following  remarks  and  ta- 
ble from  Johnson's  translations  of  the  book  of  Indus- 
trial design,  by  M.  Armengaud,  the  elder,  and  M.  M. 
Armengaud,  the  younger: 

"  Compression  is  a  force  which  strives  to  crush,  or 
render  more  dense,  the  fibres  or  molecules,  of  any  sub- 
stance which  is  submitted  to  its  action. 

"  According  to  Kondelet's  experiments,  a  prism  of 
oak,  of  such  dimensions  that  its  length  or  height  is  not 
greater  than  seven  times  the  least  dimensions  of  its 
transverse  section,  will  be  crushed  by  a  weight  of  from 
385  to  462  kilogrammes  to  the  square  centimetre  of 
transverse  section,  or  a  weight  of  from  5470  to  6547 
per  square  inch  of  transverse  section. 

"  In  general,  with  oak  or  cast  iron,  flexure  begins 
to  take  place  in  a  piece  submitted  to  a  crushing  force, 
as  soon  as  the  length  or  height  reaches  ten  times  the 
least  dimension  of  the  transverse  section.  Up  to  this 
point  the  resistance  to  compression  is  pretty  regular. 

"  Wrought  iron  begins  to  be  compressed  under  a 
weight  of  4900  kilog.  per  square  centimetre,  or  of 
nearly  70000  Ibs.  per  square  inch,  and  bends  pre- 
viously to  crushing,  as  soon  as  the  length  or  height  of 
the  piece  exceeds  three  times  the  least  dimension  of 
the  transverse  section." 

We  show,  in  the  following  table,  to  what  extent 
per  square  inch  we  may  safely  load  bodies  of  various 
substances : 


SURFACE   CONDENSERS. 


141 


Table  of  the  Weights  which  Solids — such  as  Columns,  Pilas- 
ters, Supports — will  Maintain  without  being  Crushed. 


WOODS  AND  METALS. 


Description  of  Material. 

Proportion  of  Length  to  Least  Dimensions. 

Up  to  12. 

Above  12. 

Above  24. 

Above  48. 

Above  60. 

Sound  Oak  

Ibs. 
426.750 
270.275 
533.437 
137.982 
14225.000 
28450.000 
11707.175 

Ibs. 
355.625 
119.490 
440.975 
116.645 
11877.875 
23755.750 

Ibs. 
213.375 
71.125 
266.007 
69.709 
7112.500 
14225.000 

Ibs. 
71.125 

106.687 

2375.575 
4741.666 

Ibs. 
35.562 

1994.900 
2375.575 

Pitch  Pine 

Cast  Iron        .         

Rolled  Copper  

EXAMPLE. — What  is  the  least  diameter  of  a  piston 
rod  for  a  cylinder  having  a  cross-section  of  3848.4 
square  inches,  to  sustain  with  safety  a  pressure  per 
square  inch  of  piston  of  40  Ibs.,  the  proportion  of 
length  to  be  about  24  to  1  ? 

ANSWER. — Taking  one  half  the  number  in  the 
above  table  for  the  practical  value,  we  have 

3848.4  x  40 


=  43.28604  sq.  ins.  cross  section  of  the  rod, 


43.28604       .    .  .        ,.  -,,          -, 

— — — —  =7.4  ins.  diameter  of  the  rod. 

.  7  o54 


Surface  Condensers. 

A  surface  condenser  is  an  instrument  for  condens- 
ing steam  by  contact  with  cold  metallic  surfaces,  in- 
stead of  bringing  it  directly  into  contact  with  a  shower 
of  cold  water.  The  object  of  using  such  a  condenser  in 
lieu  of  the  common  jet,  is  to  furnish  boilers  of  marine 
steamers  with  distilled  instead  of  sea  water,  conse- 


142  SUKFACE   CONDENSEKS. 

quently  to  provide  against  the  loss  of  fuel  otherwise 
occasioned  by  blowing  off  a  portion  of  the  water,  to 
keep  the  concentration  at  a  desired  point,  as  shown  at 
pages  66  and  67.  Also  to  prevent  the  loss  due  to  the 
little  conducting  power  of  the  envelope  of  scale  which 
attaches  to  all  heating  surfaces  of  boilers  using  sea 
water. 

By  the  use  of  such  an  instrument  there  is  also 
gained  the  saving  in  labor  of  scaling  and  cleaning  the 
boilers,  which  belongs  to  all  sea  steamers  using  the 
common  jet,  and  this  is  of  no  small  importance  to 
those  having  the  care  of  steam  machinery. 

Again,  by  its  use  the  expense  of  repairs  to  the 
boilers  is  considerably  reduced,  their  durability  greatly 
increased,  the  pressure  of  steam  which  can  be  ju- 
diciously carried  is  unlimited,  and  the  expansion  of  the 
steam  can  be  carried  to  a  greater  extent. 

With  these  many  marked  advantages,  it  seems  ex- 
traordinary that  the  introduction  of  surface  condensers 
should  have  met  with  so  little  encouragement ;  the 
slow  progress  made  has  not  been  owing  to  any  want 
of  engineering  ability,  but  solely  for  the  want  of  pat- 
ronage ;  for  engineers  of  talent  both  here  and  in 
Europe  have  devoted  their  time  to  the  subject  for 
many  years,  and  have  produced  many  forms,  some  of 
which  have  been  so  successful  as  to  render,  in  our 
opinion,  the  use  of  jet  condensers  absurd.  Of  the 
number  invented  and  introduced  into  practice,  the  one 
known  as  Pirsson's  has  thus  far  met  with  the  most 
favor.  It  is  termed  a  double  vacuum  condenser,  i.  e., 
it  has  a  vacuum  within  and  without  the  condensing 
tubes.  The  injection  water  is  received  upon  a  scatter- 
ing plate,  and  showered  down  on  the  tubes,  which 
condenses  the  steam  within  them;  this  injection  water 


SURFACE   CONDENSERS.  143 

with  the  air  and  uncondensed  vapor  is  extracted  by 
an  air-pump,  in  the  same  manner  as  when  the  jet  con- 
denser is  used,  and  the  water  of  condensation  is  drawn 
away  by  a  separate  pump,  called  the  fresh  water  pump, 
and  discharged  into  a  reservoir,  whence  it  is  delivered 
by  the  feed-pumps  into  the  boilers. 

Another  variety  of  condenser,  known  as  Sewell's, 
has  recently  attracted  considerable  notice.  It  has  been 
highly  reported  upon  by  a  Board  of  naval  engineers 
appointed  by  the  Hon.  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  and  has 
been  introduced  into  some  of  the  most  successful 
steamers.  It  is  of  the  close  surface  type,  that  is,  it  has 
a  vacuum  upon  only  one  side  of  the  condensing  tubes, 
the  condensation  being  effected  by  currents  of  cold 
water  driven  through  the  tubes  by  a  pump.  The  joints- 
of  the  tubes  are  made  with  india-rubber  sleeves,  so  that 
they  give  perfect  tightness,  and  allow  each  tube  to  ex- 
pand or  contract  by  itself,  independent  of  the  others, 
and  each  or  all  of  them  can  be  taken  out  for  cleaning 
or  repairs.  The  vacuum  produced  by  this  condenser 
is  unequalled,  and  as  there  is  but  one  air-pump,  it  is 
obtained  with  less  power  than  by  the  other  method. 

Close  tube  surface  condensers  had  been  made  with 
the  tubes  secured  at  both  ends  without  any  provision 
for  expansion  or  contraction,  except  the  buckling  of 
the  tubes  when  hot,  and  stretching  when  cold.  They 
have  also  been  made  with  one  end  of  the  tubes  only 
secured,  the  other  ends  being  fitted  to  an  expansion 
plate.  The  advantages  of  Mr.  Sewell's  over  the  latter1 
named  plans  are  manifest. 

The  following  figure*  will  give  the'  student  a  clearer 
idea  of  the  construction  and  operation  of  Pirsson's 
condenser.  A  A,  is  the  condenser,,  in  which  there  is  a- 

*  Taken  from  "Steam  for  the  Million" by  Cemmander  WARD,  U.S.  N. 

10 


144 


SURFACE   CONDENSERS. 


series  of  small  tubes :  p,  the  air-pump ;  /,  fresh  water- 
pump  ;  £,  the  exhaust  pipe ;  £,  the  injection  pipe.    The 


operation  is  as  follows: — The  engine  being  put  in  mo- 
tion, the  exhaust  steam  flows  through  the  exhaust  pipe 
£,  into  the  chambers  c  c,  thence  in  direction  of  the  ar- 
rows through  the  tubes  to  the  lower  chamber  d,  injec- 
tion water  being  admitted  at  the  same  time  from  the 
sea  through  the  injection  pipe  £,  is  showered  by  the 
scattering  plate  m  over  the  tubes,  and  by  its  gravity 
takes  the  direction  of  the  arrows  to  the  channel  way  n, 
from  which  it  is  removed  by  the  air-pump  p,  and  de- 
livered into  the  hot  well  q  to  the  delivery  pipe  r  and 
overboard. 

The  water  resulting  from  condensation  is  drawn 
by  the  fresh  water  pump/  from  the  chamber  d,  through 
the  pipe  e  e,  and  delivered  into  the  fresh  water  reser- 
voir g"  from  this  reservoir  it  passes  to  the  feed  pump 
*,  through  the  pipe  A,  and  is  delivered  into  the  boilers 
through  the  pipe  Tc.  The  pipe  s  is  for  the  purpose  of 
supplying  salt  water  when  deficiencies  occur. 

In  this  condenser,  as  drawn,  all  the  tubes  are  firmly 
secured  to  both  tube  heads,  but  one  end  of  the  tube 
box  is  free,  so  that  all  the  tubes  can  expand  and  con- 


CYLINDRICAL   BOILERS.  145 

tract  together ;  those  recently  constructed  have  each 
tube  secured  to  the  tube  head  at  one  head  only,  the 
other  ends  being  fitted  so  that  they  just  pass  through 
the  holes,  thus  allowing  each  tube  to  expand  or  con- 
tract regardless  of  the  others.  There  is  also  a  com- 
munication from  the  exterior  to  the  interior  side  of  the 
tubes,  so  that  the  vacuum  within  created  by  the  fresh 
water  pump  is  equal  to  that  without,  created  by  the 
large  air-pump.  In  close  tube  surface  condensers,  the 
position  of  the  steam  and  water,  as  shown  in  the  figure, 
is  reversed.  The  exhaust  steam  is  received  on  the  ex- 
terior of  the  tubes  as  at  Z,  and  is  condensed  by  water 
entering  at  c'  <?,  and  driven  through  thetubes  by  a  cir- 
culating pump,  attached  at  b  •  it  is  then  discharged 
through  a  pipe  from  d.  The  pump  p  is  converted  into 
a  fresh  water  air-pump,  receiving  the  fresh  water 
through  the  channel-way  n  and  foot-valve  0,  and  dis- 
charging it  into  the  reservoir  ^,  whence  it  is  received 
by  the  feed-pump  and  pumped  into  the  boilers. 

Cylindrical  Boilers. 

The  force  tending  to  rupture  a  cylinder  along  the 
curved  sides  depends  upon  the  diameter  of  the  cylinder 
and  pressure  of  steam,  and  we 
may  regard,  hence,  the  total 
pressure  sustained  by  the  sides 
to  be  equal  to  the  diameter  x 
pressure  per  unit  of  surface  x 
length  of  boiler,  neglecting  any 
support  derivable  from  the  heads, 
which,  in  practice,  depends  on 
the  length.  The  shorter  the 
tube,  the  greater  its  powers  of  resistance.  This  is  in 


146  CYLINDRICAL   BOILERS. 

consequence  of  the  ends  being  rigid  and  unyieldingc— f 
See  latest  experiments  on  this  subject  by  William  Fair 
bairn,  Esq.,  C.  E.,  F.  R.  S. 

The  force  tending  to  rupture  a  boiler  is  termed,  by 
Professor  Johnson,  the  divellant  force,  and  the  tenacity 
or  strength  of  the  metal  which  resists  the  divellant 
force  is  termed  the  quiescent  force.  When  rupture  is 
about  to  take  place,  these  two  forces  must  be  exactly 
equal. 

EXAMPLE. — What  pressure  will  a  cylinder  boiler, 
12  ins.  diameter,  and  i  in  thickness  of  metal,  sustain 
per  square  inch,  the  iron  to  be  of  the  best  English 
iron  ? 

The  experiments  of  the  Franklin  Institute  give  for 
the  strength  of  single  riveted  seams,  56  per  cent,  of 
the  sheet,  and  assuming  the  tensile  strength  of  the  best 
English  iron  to  be  60,000  Ibs.  per  square  inch  of  sec- 
tion, we  have 

12  (diameter)  x  4  (length  of  band  to  make  1  sq.  in.  area  of  cross  section)  =7< 

But  as  the  opposite  side  of  the  boiler  will  support  an 
equal  amount,  the  true  pressure  will  be  double  this,  or 
1400  Ibs.  per  square  inch,  one-fourth  of  which  only 
(350  Ibs.)  would  be  safe  to  subject  it  to  in  practice. 

From  this  we  see  that  the  bursting  pressure  of  a 
boiler  of  the  dimensions  above  given,  in  a  transverse 
direction,  is  1400  Ibs.  per  square  inch.  We  will  now 
see  what  force  this  1400  Ibs.  exerts  to  tear  the  boiler 
asunder  in  a  longitudinal  direction.  To  do  this,  we 
have  only  to  multiply  the  area  of  the  head  by  the 
pressure  per  square  inch,  and  divide  by  £  the  circum- 
ference, (since  the  iron  is  £  inch  thick,)  which  will 
give  the  strain  upon  each  square  inch  of  sectional  area. 


CYLINDRICAL   BOILEBS.  147 

Thus   11.8:°<iX  *4()-  =  16800  Ibs.  per  square  inch 
oT.foy  -7-  4 

of  sectional  area,  in  a  longitudinal  direction,  and 

1400  X  12  X  4 

-  ==  33600  Ibs.  per  square  inch  of  sec- 

a 

tional  area  in  a  transverse  direction. 

The  4  in  the  latter  case  is  the  length  of  the  band 
to  give  one  inch  square  of  sectional  area,  and  we  divide 
by  2  because  there  are  two  sides  of  the  boiler  to  sup- 
port the  pressure. 

From  these  figures,  it  is  observed  that  the  strain 
upon  a  cylindrical  boiler,  or  other  cylindrical  vessels, 
subject  to  internal  pressure,  transversely,  is  exactly 
double  what  it  is  longitudinally.  In  cast  iron,  or  other 
cast  metal  cylindrical  vessels,  this  is  made  amends  for, 
in  a  certain  degree,  by  casting  ribs,  or  bands,  around 
the  external  surface ;  but  with  boilers  there  appears  to 
have  been  no  attempt  to  increase  the  strength  by  riv- 
eting bands  at  intervals  on  the  outer  surface,  though 
we  see  no  good  reason  why  such  a  thing  could  not  be 
done  very  advantageously. 

We  remark,  from  what  has  appeared,  that  the 
strain  upon  cylindrical  boilers  increases  transversely 
directly  as  the  diameters,  and  longitudinally  as  the 
squares  of  the  diameters — because  the  areas  of  the 
heads  increase  in  that  ratio — but  the  circumferences 
increase  also  as  the  diameters ;  and  hence,  though  we 
obtain  four  times  the  pressure  longitudinally  by  doub- 
ling the  diameter,  we  have  double  the  metal  in  the 
circumference  of  the  boiler  to  sustain  it,  and,  therefore, 
the  strain  upon  a  unit  of  metal,  in  this  direction,  in- 
creases also  as  the  diameter.  Hence,  no  matter  what 
may  be  the  diameter  of  a  boiler,  the  transverse  pres- 
sure tending  to  tear  it  asunder,  will  always  be  double 
the  longitudinal  pressure. 


148  BOILER   EXPLOSIONS. 

Boiler  Explosions. 

There  is  only  one  grand  direct  cause  of  boiler  ex- 
. plosions,  and  that  is  the  incapacity  of  the  metal,  at  the 
time,  to  sustain  the  pressure  to  which  it  is  subjected. 
This  can  be  brought  about  in  several  ways  ;  defective 
material  of  which  the  boiler  is  constructed,  defective 
construction,  all  parts  of  the  boiler  being  incapable  of 
sustaining  the  same  pressure,  gradual  accumulated  pres- 
sure without  the  means  of  escape,  sudden  accumulated 
pressure  occasioned  by  pumping  water  on  red-hot  sheets, 
collapse  occasioned  by  a  vacuum  in  the  boiler,  the  re- 
verse valve  being  inoperative;  collapse  of  flue  occa- 
sioned by  internal  pressure  in  the  boiler  and  a  partial 
vacuum  in  the  flue ;  overheating  the  plates,  brought 
about  by  the  accumulation  of  large  quantities  of  scale 
upon  them,  thereby  reducing  their  tenacity. 

Boilers  having  been  previously  tested  by  hydros- 
tatic pressure  considerably  beyond  the  limit  to  which 
it  is  intended  ever  to  allow  the  steam  to  reach,  and 
each  and  every  boiler  being  fitted  with  steam  and  wa- 
ter-gauges, proper  sized  safety-valves  and  such  like  in- 
struments, there  is  never  any  good  expuse,  under  any 
circumstances,  for  the  cause  of  boiler  explosions.  In- 
competency  or  recklessness  must  be  somewhere  mani- 
fest, for  the  engineer,  knowing  the  pressure  which  his 
boiler  will  with  safety  bear,  should  under  no  circum- 
stances allow  it  to  exceed  that  pressure.  We  would, 
however,  observe  here,  that  we  have  noticed  in  many 
cases,  both  ashore  and  afloat  where  there  are  a  number 
of  boilers  connected  together,  instead  of  having  a 
steam  gauge  attached  to  each  one  separately,  there  was 
but  one  gauge  to  the  whole  number ;  and  hence,  if  one 
or  more  boilers  be  shut  off  from  the  others,  there  would 


BOILER   EXPLOSIONS.  149 

be  no  means  of  ascertaining  the  pressure  within  them ; 
and  it  is  a  very  common  thing  with  land  boilers  and 
boilers  of  small  river  boats  to  have  no  steam-gauge 
whatever.  In  such  cases  as  these  the  owners  take 
upon  themselves  the  responsibility,  which  would  other- 
wise be  attached  to  the  engineer,  of  any  disastrous 
result. 

The  legislation  in  regard  to  the  inspection  of  steam- 
boilers  is  hardly  adequate  to  the  cause ;  for  though  the 
testing  the  strengths  of  boilers,  from  time  to  time,  is 
very  good  as  far  as  it  goes,  it  falls  short  of  what  the 
seriousness  of  the  case  demands.  The  same  amount  of 
strict,  unbiased  inspection  on  the  parties  who  have 
charge  of  the  very  powerful,  yet  governable  element 
of  steam,  would  be  followed  by  far  more  beneficial 
results.  Place  only  those  in  charge  of  the  steam- 
engine,  boilers,  and  dependencies,  who  are  competent 
to  the  task  ;  prevent  owners  from  employing  any  one 
simply  because  his  services  can  be  secured  for  a  small 
compensation,  and  then  you  touch  the  subject  in  a  vital 
point.  It  is  too  prevalent  an  opinion,  that  any  one 
who  can  stop  and  start  an  engine,  have  the  fires  started 
and  hauled,  is  an  engineer,  regardless  of  his  knowledge 
of  the  element  of  which  he  has  charge. 

It  is  true,  however,  that  the  system  of  rivalry  and 
competition,  carried  on  by  steamboat  owners  and  others 
using  steam  power,  is  such  as  to  prevent  any  one  inde- 
pendently from  paying  a  very  high  rate  of  compensa- 
tion; but  if  all  were  compelled  to  employ  equally 
competent  services,  no  difficulty  could  be  experienced 
on  this  head. 


150  HOKSE   POWER. 

Horse  Power. 

The  standard  for  a  horse  power  in  England  and  the 
United  States  is  pretty  generally  established  at  33000 
Ibs.  raised  one  foot  high  in  a  minute ;  but  in  France  a 
horse  power  is  estimated  at  75  kilogrammetres,  which  is 
75  kilogrammetres  raised  one  metre  high  per  second, 
equal  to  32554.7  Ibs.  avoirdupois,  raised  one  foot  high 
per  minute.  To  ascertain  the  horse  power  of  a  steam 
engine,  multiply  the  mean  unbalanced  pressure  per 
square  inch  on  the  piston,  by  the  area  of  the  piston  in 
square  inches,  by  the  length  of  the  stroke  in  feet,  and 
by  the  number  of  strokes  in  a  minute;  and  divide  by 
33,000,  the  quotient  will  be  the  horse  powei\ 

From  this  figure,  in  order  to  ascertain  the  actual 
power  utilized  in  propelling  the  vessel,  a  deduction  has 
to  be  made  for  working  the  air  and  feed  pumps  with 
their  load,  friction  of  working  journals,  friction  of  load 
on  working  journals,  amounting  in  all  to  about  20  per 
cent,  of  the  total  power,  leaving  80  per  cent,  to  be  ap- 
plied to  the  propelling  instrument,  which  80  per  cent, 
has  to  be  reduced  by  the  amount  of  loss  which  obtains 
in  the  propelling  instrument. 

EXAMPLE. — Required  the  horse  power  of  a  con- 
densing steam-engine,  having  a  cylinder  70  inches 
diameter,  by  10  feet  stroke,  making  15  revolutions  per 
minute  ;  mean  pressure  of  steam  throughout  the  stroke 
23  Ibs. ;  back  pressure  3  Ibs. ;  and  also  the  actual 
power  utilized  in  propelling  the  hull  of  the  vessel,  the 
sum  of  losses  in  the  propelling  instrument  being  40 
per  cent,  of  the  power  applied  to  it  ? 

ANSWER  IST. — 

702X. 7854x23-3x10x15x2 

-33000-  --699.7  horse  power. 


HOESE   POWER.  151 

ANSWER  2D. — Considering  20  per  cent,  of  the  total 
power  to  be  expended  in  working  pumps,  in  friction, 
<fec.,  we  have  80  per  cent,  applied  to  the  propelling 
instrument,  and  40  per  cent,  of  80  per  cent.  =  32  per 
cent,  of  the  total  power  expended  in  transmission 
through  the  propelling  instrument ;  wherefore,  80  — 
32  =  48  per  cent,  of  the  total  power  applied  to  pro- 
pelling the  hull  of  the  vessel  =  335.856  horses. 

Nominal  Horse  Power,  is  a  term  which  expresses 
neither  the  actual  power,  the  size  of  the  engine,  nor 
any  thing  else  which  is  useful ;  and  though  it  has  be- 
come almost  obsolete  among  well-informed  engineers 
in  this  country,  our  trans-atlantic  friends  seem  yet  to 
cling  to  it  with  some  tenacity. 

The  usual  rule  for  determining  it  is  this  :  Multiply 
the  square  of  tlie  diameter  of  the  cylinder  in  inches,  by 
the  cube  root  of  the  length  of  the  stroke  in  feet,  and 
divide  by  47  /  the  quotient  is  the  Jiorse  power. 

Now,  the  chief  object  for  establishing  a  rule  for 
nominal  horse  power  was  to  create  a  commercial  unit, 
by  which  the  power  of  one  engine  could  be  compared 
with  that  of  another  engine  ;  and  this  rule  might  meet 
the  wants  of  the  case,  did  the  lengths  and  breadths  of 
all  cylinders  bear  the  same  ratio,  and  did  the  pressure 
of  steam  remain  an  invariable  quantity :  but  as  these 
elements  are  constantly  varying,  it  is  of  no  use  what- 
ever ;  and  further,  if  they  did  not  vary,  the  simple 
square  of  the  diameter  would  express  an  unit  equally 
incorrect.  In  order  to  show  further  the  utter  useless- 
ness  of  the  term  horse  power,  as  expressed  above,  we 
will  take  two  engines,  each  having  TO  inches  diameter 
of  cylinder,  one  10  feet  stroke,  the  other  5  feet  stroke, 
and  ascertain  the  nominal  horse  power  of  each. 


152 


VIBRATION    OF    BEAMS. 

7o2x  VTo 


47 

702X  V5 
47 


=  224.7  horses. 


=  178.2  horses. 


Now,  then,  if  the  pressure  of  steam  was  the  same 
in  these  two  cylinders,  and  the  pistons  moved  with 
the  same  velocity,  it  is  manifest  that  the  powers  must 
be  the  same ;  yet,  according  to  the  rule  for  nominal 
horse  power,  they  are  made  widely  different ;  and  if 
so  much  difference  is  made  while  the  pressure  of  steam 
is  supposed  to  remain  constant,  what  must  we  expect 
when  that  element  also  varies  ? 


Vibration  of  Beams. 

Given,  the  length,  O  c,  from  centre  of  beam,  to  a  5, 
line  passing  through  centre  of  cylinder  =  10  feet ;  and 


FIG.  13. 


length  of  stroke  =  10  feet ;  required,  the  length  O  A, 
or  O  C,  of  half  the  beam  ? 


MARESTE   ECONOMY.  153 

The  line  a  b  bisects  the  versed  sine  of  the  arc,  and, 
supposing  one  half  (c  C)  of  the  versed  sine  to  be  =  #, 
we  have  (10  +  xf  =  (10  -  so)2  -f  52 

100  +  20#  +  tf  =  100  -  20o?  +  or2  +  25 


#  =  .625, 

Hence,  half  the  length  of  the  beam  =  (10  +  .625) 
=  10.625  feet. 


Marine  Economy. 

A  body  moving  through  water  with  a  certain 
velocity  displaces  a  certain  quantity  of  water  in  a  given 
time,  with  a  certain  velocity  ;  if  the  velocity  be  doubled, 
the  quantity  of  water  displaced  will  also  be  doubled, 
because  the  body  moves  double  the  distance,  and  each 
particle  of  water  will,  therefore,  be  displaced  with 
double  the  velocity  ;  hence,  the  resistance  to  the  body 
will  be  as  2  X  2,  or  as  the  square  of  the  velocity.  Thus 
it  appears  that,  if  a  ship  consumes  500  tons  of  coal  to 
perform  a  certain  distance,  at  the  rate  of  5  miles  the 
hour,  to  perform  the  same  distance  at  the  rate  of  10 
miles  the  hour,  would  require  52 :  102 :  :  500  :  2000 
tons,  or  4  times  500  ;  but  the  quantity  of  coal  required 
for  any  one  day,  at  the  rate  of  10  miles,  will  not  be  4 
times  the  quantity  required  at  that  rate  for  5  miles, 
but  will  be  8  times ;  for,  supposing  the  speed  be  in- 
creased to  10  miles  the  hour,  the  same  distance  will  be 
performed  in  5  days ;  hence,  we  have,  in  the  first  case, 
500  tons  consumed  in  10  days  =  50  tons  per  day,  and 
in  the  latter  case,  2000  tons  in  5  days  =  400  tons  per 
day,  or  8  times  50  tons.  Now,  then,  taking  the  coal 
as  the  exponent  of  the  power,  we  see  that  the  power 


154  MAKENE   ECONOMY. 

has  to  increase  as  2  x  2  X  2,  or  as  the  cube  of  the 
velocity.  Hence  the  importance,  wherever  speed  is 
not  an  object,  of  running  the  engines  as  slow  as  possi- 
ble, in  order  to  economize  the  fuel. 

But  whenever  there  is  an  adverse  current  to  con- 
tend with,  the  most  economical  speed  is  lialf  as  fast 
again  as  the  current.  That  is  to  say,  if  the  velocity 
of  the  current  be  4  miles  the  hour,  the  velocity  of  the 
vessel  should  be  6  miles.  We  will  endeavor  to  demon- 
strate this  without  the  use  of  mathematical  formula. 

Let  1  represent  the  power  required  for  a  speed  of 
one  mile  per  hour,  then,  inasmuch  as  the  power  in- 
creases as  the  cube  of  the  velocity,  the  power  required 
for  the  speed  of  6  miles  =  63  =  216,  and  the  ground 
moved  over  =  4  —  2  =  2. 

Suppose,  now,  the  velocity  of  the  ship  be  reduced 
to  5  miles  per  hour,  the  power  will  be  =  53  =  125,  and 
the  ground  moved  over  =5  —  4  =  1. 

Suppose,  again,  the  speed  to  be  increased  to  7  miles 
per  hour,  the  power  will  be  =73  =  343,  and  the  ground 
moved  over  =  7  —  4  =  3. 

Summing  up  these  figures,  we  have  for  a  speed  of 
7  miles  per  hour  a  power  expended  of  343,  to  make 
good  a  distance  of  3  miles  =  114-^  per  mile;  for  a 
speed  of  5  miles,  a  power  of  125  to  make  good  1  mile 
=  125  per  mile;  and  for  a  speed  of  6  miles,  216,  to 
make  good  2  miles  =108  per  mile.  Consequently, 
the  least  power  is  required  at  the  speed  of  6  miles, 
which  is  half  as  fast  again  as  the  current. 

Had  the  calculation  been  made  for  any  fraction  of 
a  mile,  either  above  or  below  6,  the  same  result  would 
have  been  obtained. 

These  calculations  apply  alike  to  head  winds,  <fec., 
at  sea,  as  well  as  to  a  tide-way  in  a  river ;  whence  it 


LIMIT   TO    EXPANSION.  155 

follows  that  a  vessel  can  be  run  even  too  slow  for 
economy,  but  nevertheless,  when  having  a  heavy  head 
sea  to  contend  with,  there  are  other  elements  besides 
economy  of  fuel  to  be  taken  into  consideration ;  the 
strain  upon  the  vessel  and  machinery,  the  plunging 
and  staving  in  of  the  light  work  about  the  bows  and 
other  places,  shipping  of  seas,  <fec.,  are  matters  which 
also  require  the  judgment  of  the  commanding  officer. 

Limit  to  Expansion. 

Theoretically,  supposing  a  perfect  vacuum  to  ob- 
tain in  the  cylinder,  there  is  no  limit  to  expansion ; 
but,  practically,  there  is.  The  unbalanced  pressure  at 
the  end  of  the  stroke  should  never  be  less  than  suffi- 
cient to  overcome  the  friction  of  the  engine,  and  ought 
always  to  be  a  little  more. 

EXAMPLE. — Length  of  stroke  =  8  ft. ;  initial  pres- 
sure of  steam  30  Ibs.  per  square  inch,  inclusive  of  the 
atmosphere ;  back  pressure  4  Ibs.  per  sq.  inch  ;  friction 
of  engines,  <fec.,  =  2  Ibs.  per  square  inch ;  required  the 
point  where  the  steam  should  be  cut  off  to  yield  all  its 
useful  effect  ? 

x  =  the  point, 
4  -f  2  =  6  =  the  pressure  at  the  end, 

x  X  30  =  6  X  8 
30a?=48 

o?=  1.6  ft.  from  commencement. 

The  Proper  Lift  for  a  Valve 

Is  equal  to  the  area  of  the  valve  divided  by  the 
circumference. 


156         TEMPERATURE  OF  CONDENSER. 

And  the  metal  of  which  they  are  made  is  either 
brass  or  cast  iron ;  the  latter  has  the  advantage  of  ex- 
panding nearer  equal  with  the  steam  chest. 

Temperature  of  Condenser. 

EXAMPLE. — Water  in  the  boilers,  carried  at  a  den- 
sity of  1 1  per  saline  hydrometer ;  temperature  of  the 
condenser,  and  water  entering  the  boilers,  105°  Fahr. ; 
vacuum  in  condenser,  2T.82  inches.  Compare  the  eco- 
nomic performance  of  the  engine,  under  these  circum- 
stances, with  the  same  engine,  carrying  the  water  in 
the  boilers  at  the  same  density,  but  the  water  in  the 
condenser  at  120°  Fahr. ;  the  mean  pressure  of  steam 
in  both  cases  on  the  piston  being  20  pounds  per  square 
inch? 

SOLUTION. — Neglecting  the  difference  of  power  in 
the  two  cases  required  to  work  the  air-pump,  taking 
the  boiler  pressure  at  20  Ibs.,  and  2  inches  of  mercury 
to  be  equal  to  1  Ib.  pressure,  we  proceed  thus : 

1184-105 X.V5+228.5-105  :  228.5—105  :  :  100  : 
13.23  per  cent,  loss  by  blowing  off,  in  the  first  case. 

1184-120X.T5+228.5-120  :  228.5-120  :  :  100  : 
11.96  per  cent,  loss  by  blowing  off,  in  the  second  case. 

20x2  :  2.18  (back  pressure)  :  :  100  :  5.45  per  cent, 
of  the  effect  of  the  engine  lost  by  back  pressure,  in  the 
first  case. 

20  X  2  :  3.33  (back  pressure) :  :  100  :  8.325  per  cent, 
of  the  effect  of  the  engine  lost  by  back  pressure,  in  the 
second  case. 


TEMPEEATUEE  OF  CONDENSEE.         157 

Now,  then,  letting  the  fuel  represent  the  power, 
we  observe,  in  the  first  case,  that  only  (100—13.23=) 
86.77  per  cent,  reaches  the  engine,  of  which  5.45  per 
cent,  is  lost  in  back  pressure,  and  5.45  per  cent,  of 
86.77  per  cent.=4.73  per  cent,  of  the  total  effect  lost 
by  back  pressure,  leaving  (86.77—4.73=)  82.04  per 
cent,  to  be  applied  to  operating  the  engine. 

In  the  second  case,  (100—11.96=)  88.04  per  cent, 
of  the  power  reaches  the  engine,  of  which  8.325  per 
cent,  is  lost  in  back  pressure,  and  8.325  per  cent,  of 
88.04  per  cent.=7.33  per  cent,  of  the  total  effect  lost 
by  back  pressure;  leaving  (88.04—7.33=)  80.71  per 
cent,  to  be  applied  to  operating  the  engine. 

Therefore,  under  the  conditions  of  the  example, 
the  engine,  in  the  first  case,  performs  the  same  amount 
of  work  with  (82.04  —  80.71=)  1.33  per  cent,  less  fuel. 

This  calculation  can  be  made  accurate  by  taking  dia- 
grams from  the  cylinder  and  air-pump,  under  the  con- 
ditions of  the  example,  and  estimating  the  power  in 
each  case ;  then,  the  power  to  work  the  air-pump  is 
considered. 


CHAPTER   VI. 

WESTEKN   KIVER    BOAT   ENGINE. 

FIG.  1  is  a  side  elevation,  and  Fig.  2  an  end  view  of 
the  celebrated  high-pressure  engine,  so  extensively 
employed  on  all  the  Western  rivers,  also  in  many  iron- 
rolling  mills,  and  other  manufacturing  establishments 
of  the  West. 

The  first  steamboat  that  ever  navigated  the  great 
rivers  Ohio  and  Mississippi  was  called  the  New  Or- 
leans, built  at  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  by  Mr.  Rosevelt,  for 
Messrs.  Fulton  &  Livingston,  of  New  York ;  launched 
March,  1811,  and  made  a  passage  to  New  Orleans  the 
latter  part  of  the  same  year.  We  have  no  reliable 
information  in  regard  to  the  kind  of  machinery  used 
on  board  that  boat.  The  type  at  present  employed, 
however,  came  into  use  early  in  the  history  of  Western 
river  steam  navigation.  It  subsequently  underwent 
several  modifications,  but  for  a  quarter  of  a  century  it 
has  been  made  essentially  as  represented  by  the  fol- 
lowing cuts.  In  fact,  so  alike  have  they  been  made, 
for  many  years,  that  those  engaged  in  constructing 
them  make  no  drawings,  but  continue  from  year  to 
year  to  cast  from  the  same  patterns,  and  make  and 
erect  without  variation. 

In  all  the  side-wheel  boats,  the  engines  are  discon- 
nected, separate,  and  distinct,  so  that  by  revolving  the 
wheels  in  opposite  directions,  the  boats  can  be  turned 
on  a  pivot. 


WESTERN   EIVEE   BOAT   ENGINE. 


159 


160  WESTERN    RIVER   BOAT   ENGINE. 

S 

ii ) 

tr\ 


Fio.  1 


Section  through  W  Z. 
EXPLANATIONS    OF   DIAGRAMS. 

The  piston  is  represented  to  be  proceeding  in  the 
direction  indicated  by  the  arrows,  both  steam  valves 
closed  and  one  exhaust  valve  open ;  the  steam  is  there- 
fore cut  off,  and  acting  expansively. 

Like  letters  refer  to  like  parts  in  both  views : 
A,  steam  cylinder ;  .5,  steam  piston,  with  metallic 
packing  set  out  with  springs,  as  recently  introduced ; 
c  c,  piston  follower ;  D,  piston  rod ;  EE,  steam  side 
pipe,  to  which  the  steam  pipe  from  boilers  is  attached ; 
F  F,  steam  valves ;  6r,  exhaust  valve ;  H H,  valve 


WESTEKN   EIVER   BOAT   ENGINE.  161 

stems;  II,  valve  levers;  I£ K,  steam  valve  lifters; 
L  L',  arms  connecting  steam  rock  shaft  with  exhaust 
lifters,  on  opposite  side  of  engine,  shown  in  Fig.  2 ; 
JVJVJ  points  of  application  of  weight  or  pressure  to 
levers ;  P  P,  fulcrums  of  levers ;  M,  steam  rock  shaft 
arm,  to  which  cut  off  cam  rod  is  connected ;  T  T,  pins 
of  rock  shaft  arms,  to  which  full  stroke  cam  rod  is 
hooked ;  /SJ  starting  bar. 

The  lifters  for  working  the  exhaust  valves,  with 
arm  L  cast  on,  are  loose,  and  vibrate  on  the  steam 
rock  shaft.  They  are  on  the  opposite  side  of  engine, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  2.  The  arms  L  L  are  of  the  same 
length,  being  used  only  to  connect  the  exhaust  rock 
shaft  to  the  exhaust  lifters. 

The  valves  are  worked  by  cams ;  the  exhaust  cam 
being  made  for  full  stroke,  and  the  steam  cam  to  cut 
off  the  steam  at  defined  points  of  the  stroke. 

There  is  a  short  shifting  link  to  connect  the  ex- 
haust rock  shaft  arm  at  Twith  the  steam  rock  shaft 
arm  It,  so  that  when  it  is  desired  to  work  the  steam 
full  stroke,  instead  of  expansively,  it  is  only  necessary 
to  unhook  the  steam  cam  rod  from  the  pin  on  the  arm 
It,  and  hook  on  the  short  link ;  thus  connecting  all 
the  valve  levers,  and  working  all  the  valves  by  the 
full  stroke  cam.  To  back  the  engine,  the  engineer  has 
only  to  shift  the  full  stroke  cam  rod  from  the  lower 
pin  T  to  the  upper  pin  T.  The  laborious  working  of 
the  engines  by  hand  is  therefore  entirely  avoided ;  and 
as  there  is  much  backing  to  be  done  at  the  different 
landings,  this  is  of  importance. 

The  pitman  (connecting  rod)  is  of  wood  strapped 
with  iron,  and  from  3  to  4  times  the  length  of  stroke. 

The  valves  are  of  cast  iron,  sometimes  double  and 


162  WESTEBN   KIVER   BOAT   ENGINE. 

balanced,  but  most  frequently  single  and  unbalanced,  as 
represented  in  the  diagrams.  In  the  latter  case,  con- 
siderable power  is  expended  in  working  them  against  so 
high  a  pressure,  unless  the  valve  gear  be  constructed 
to  reduce  the  power  to  a  minimum  at  the  point  of  its 
application.  This,  however,  is  not  often  done,  though 
it  can  be  so  arranged.  And,  as  a  matter  of  exercise 
for  the  student's  mind,  we  will  give  some  explanation 
of  it,  and  of  the  operation  of  the  valves. 

The  gear  may  be  considered  a  compound  lever,  or 
two  connected  levers,  transmitting  the  power  from  the 
cam  rod  pins  through  each  other  to  the  point  of  resist- 
ance, weight,  or  pressure.  The  explanation,  then,  is 
as  follows:  Call  lever  I  No.  1,  and  lifters  K K lever 
No.  2  ;  say  the  length  of  the  long  arms  of  the  levers 
are  64  and  9  inches,  and  the  short  arms  16  and  3 
inches.  -That  is,  the  distance  from  fulcrum  P  of  lever 
No.  1  to  the  end  or  point  where  the  lifter  first  touches 
it  and  begins  to  raise  the  valve  is  64  inches,  and  the 
distance  from  centre  of  steam  rock  shaft,  which  is  the 
fulcrum  of  lever  No.  2,  to  cam  rod  pin  centre  is  9 
inches ;  also  that  from  P  to  JVJ  of  lever  No.  1,  is  16 
inches,  and  from  centre  of  steam  rock  shaft  of  lever 
No.  2  to  point  on  lifter  where  it  commences  to  raise 
the  valve  lever  is  3  inches.  Now,  suppose  there  to  be 
a  pressure  of  140  Ibs.  per  square  inch  in  the  pipe  ME, 
consequently  on  the  valves,  and  that  the  diameter  of 
the  valve  is  6  inches,  there  is  hence  a  pressure  on  each 
valve  of  6  X  6  X  .T854  =  28.274  x  140  —  3958.36  Ibs., 
which,  added  to  weight  of  valve  and  lever,  weighed  at 
N,  say  40  Ibs.  more,  —  3998.36.  This  will  be  reduced 
at  /,  end  of  lever  No.  1,  to  3998.36  -7-  4  =  999.59  Ibs., 
and  at  the  pin  of  steam  rock  shaft  arm  to  999.59  -f-  3 


WESTEKN    KIVER    BOAT   ENGINE.  163 

=  333.196  Ibs.  required  to  operate  the  valves,  friction 
not  included.  Or  the  work  may  be  shortened  by  mul- 
tiplying all  the  long  arms  together,  all  the  short  arms 
together,  dividing  one  by  the  other,  and  the  weight 
by  this  result,  thus : 

64  x  9 

-5  =  12,  and  3958.36  +  40.  -v- 12  =  333.196.  Ibs. 

lo   X  o 

To  work  the  engine  by  hand,  this  weight  can  be 
reduced  by  the  length  of  starting  bar  to  say  54.97  Ibs. 
And  it  can  be  further  reduced  by  closing  the  exhaust 
valves  sooner,  so  as  to  partially  balance  the  steam 
valves  :  for  instance,  suppose  they  be  closed  when  the 
piston  is  in  the  position  to  leave  6  inches  between  it 
and  the  cylinder  head ;  that  there  is  a  clearance  of  f 
of  an  inch,  and  that  the  back  pressure  against  the  pis- 
ton is  5  Ibs.  per  square  inch  when  the  valve  is  closed ; 
now,  according  to  the  law  of  expansion  and  compres- 
sion of  gases,  when  the  piston  has  travelled  3  inches 
further,  or  half  the  distance  from  point  of  closing  the 
valve  to  cylinder  head,  there  will  be  a  pressure  against 
it  of  10  Ibs.  per  square  inch,  and  when  it  has  travelled 
1£  inches  further,  there  will  be  a  pressure  of  20  Ibs. 
per  square  inch,  and  when  f  .of  an  inch  further,  or  at 
end  of  stroke,  there  would  be  a  pressure  of  40  Ibs.  per 
square  inch  for  the  piston  to  cushion  against,  but  the 
valve  is  not  relieved  to  this  extent  if  it  has  any  lead  ; 
say  it  is  opened  1£  inches  before  the  piston  arrives  at 
the  end  of  its  stroke,  we  then  have  only  20  Ibs.  per 
square  inch  pressure  under  the  valve  to  be  deducted 
from  the  140  Ibs.  per  square  inch  above  it,  or  a  total 
steam  pressure  on  the  valve  of  3390.08,  instead  of 
3958.36. 

We  have  been  considering  the  power  necessary  to 


164  WESTERN    RIVER    BOAT    ENGINE. 

work  each  steam  valve  separately :  we  will  now  con- 
sider that  requisite  to  operate  each  exhaust  valve. 
The  proportion  of  levers  and  gear  remaining  the  same, 
the  steam  cut  off  at  half  stroke,  and  the  diameter  of 
valve  Y|  inches — this  being  the  ratio  considered  neces- 
sary for  the  free  and  quick  escape  of  the  steam — there 
will  consequently  be  by  the  reduction  of  pressure  com- 
mon to  expansion,  at  the  time  the  valve  is  to  be  opened, 
VO  Ibs.  per  square  inch  on  it,  or  in  round  numbers 
19T9.18  Ibs.  less  than  on  the  steam  valve.  To  cut  off 
shorter,  this  pressure  is  still  further  reduced ;  to  follow 
longer,  it  is  increased — the  reduction  of  pressure  and 
temperature  by  leakage  and  condensation  in  the  cylin- 
der not  being  considered. 

This  type  of  engine  is  peculiarly  adapted  to  the 
boats  on  which  it  has  been  exclusively  employed 
for  more  than  quarter  of  a  century ;  and  when  well 
constructed,  correctly  proportioned,  and  properly  man- 
aged, it  performs  the  work  satisfactorily,  can  be  han- 
dled with  facility,  is  durable,  and  could  be  made  eco- 
nomical. But  all  these  elements  are  seldom  found  in 
any  of  them.  The  valve  gear  is  generally  arranged  so 
that  the  valves  cannot  be  worked  by  hand  against  the 
full  pressure  on  them ;  the  steam  valves  are  set  with 
little  or  no  lead,  and  the  exhaust  valves  do  not  close 
until  the  piston  arrives  at  the  end  of  the  stroke,  so 
that  there  is  only  a  very  small  cushion  against  the  pis- 
tons at  the  end  of  the  cylinders,  and  the  cranks  pass 
the  centres  against  an  unbalanced  pressure  of  from  50 
to  60  Ibs.  pressure  per  square  inch.  The  cams  for 
working  the  steam  valves  are  usually  made  to  cut  off 
the  steam  at  half,  five-eighths,  or  three-quarters  from 
commencement  of  stroke ;  and  the  cylinders,  steam 


WESTERN   RIVER   BOAT   ENGLNE.  165 

pipes  and  drums,-  upper  portions  of  boilers,  etc.,  are 
always  uncovered  (not  jacketed)  by  non-conducting 
substances,  and  exposed  to  the  cold  winds  sweeping 
between  the  decks.  It  will  therefore  be  seen  that  a 
large  margin  is  left  for  improvement  in  proportions, 
and  more  so  for  saving  fuel.  The  temperature  of  the 
steam  in  boilers,  pipes,  etc.,  may  be  averaged  at  360° 
Fahrenheit,  and  the  temperature  of  the  atmosphere 
during  the  year  at  60° ;  hence  there  is  a  difference  be- 
tween the  temperature  of  steam  within  the  vessels  and 
the  atmosphere  outside  of  300° ;  and  considering  the 
unusual  large  radiating  surface  exposed  to  the  winds 
and  cold  air,  the  loss  from  the  condensation  of  steam 
in  cylinders,  pipes,  etc.,  cannot  be  less  than  15  per 
cent,  of  the  fuel  consumed.  And  the  saving  which 
could  be  realized  in  fuel  from  a  high  degree  of  expan- 
sion, where  the  pressure  is  about  140  Ibs.  per  square 
inch,  may  be  estimated  by  the  student  from  calcula- 
tions under  that  head  commencing  at  page  12  of  this 
work. 

The  lifter  represented  in  the  diagrams  was  intro- ' 
duced  not  very  long  ago,  and  patented  by  Mr.  A.  Har- 
tuper,  of  Pittsburg,  Pa.     It  is  a   great  improvement 
over  the  lifter  formerly  employed  and  still  used  to  a 
great  extent. 

The  improvement  consists  in  commencing  to  lift 
the  valve  lever  close  up  to  the  rock  shaft,  and  starting 
with  an  easy  curve  from  the  horizontal  centre  line  of 
the  rock  shaft  downward.  Its  advantage  is  to  be  found 
in  a  smooth-working  valve  gear,  and  reduced  power 
to  work  the  valves  consequent  on  the  reduced  distance 
between  the  fulcrum  of  lever  No.  2  and  application  of 
power  on  lever  No.  1 ;  that  is,  between  the  centre  of 


166  WESTEEN   EIVEE   BOAT   ENGINE. 

rock  shaft  and  point  where  the  lifter  first  touches  the 
lever  and  begins  to  raise  the  valve.  The  valve  once 
started  from  its  seat,  steam  rushes  under  it,  and  assists 
its  ascent;  hence,  as  the  bearing  point  of  the  lifter 
approaches  its  end,  the  valve  becomes  balanced  from 
the  steam  under  it.  Furthermore,  the  shape  of  the 
lifter  is  such  as  to  raise  the  valve  quickly. 

The  ordinary  lifter  begins  to  raise  the  valve  lever 
from  and  near  its  end,  and  several  inches  from  the  end 
of  lever  /,  instead  of  near  the  fulcrum  of  lever  No.  2, 
and  at  the  end  of  lever  No.  1.  It  will  therefore  be 
readily  seen  that,  if  this  lifter  should  be  substituted 
for  the  one  represented  in  the  drawing,  the  power  to 
work  the  valves  would  be  greatly  increased.  As  an 
illustration,  suppose  the  arms  IfJfto  commence  lift- 
ing 12  inches  from  centre  of  rock  shaft,  and  9  inches 
from  end  of  lever  No.  1 ,  then  there  would  be  a  power 
of  1160.9  Ibs.  required  at  I,  and  1546.78  Ibs.  at  the 
end  of  arm  It. 

In  addition  to  this  increased  power  to  work  the 
valves,  the  sudden  striking  of  the  valve  levers  by  the 
old-fashioned  lifters  is  objectionable,  and  involves  the 
necessity  of  putting  a  leather  shoe  on  the  lever  to  ease 
the  disagreeable  noise. 

In  explanation  of  the  reduction  of  power  conse- 
quent upon  the  combination  of  levers,  the  student 
must  bear  in  mind  that  what  is  gained  in  power  is 
lost  in  time,  the  lifters  being  but  a  short  space  of  time 
raising  the  valves,  during  the  stroke  of  the  engine. 

The  kind  of  lifter  represented  in  the  diagram,  Fig. 
1,  but  with  much  greater  curve  downward,  is  some- 
times used  on  land  engines,  and  operated  by  the  eccen- 
tric to  cut  off  the  steam  at  defined  points  of  the  stroke, 


WESTEEN   EIVER   BOAT   ENGESTE.  167 

in  the  same  manner  as  the  Stevens  cut  off;  namely,  by 
lost  motion,  or,  in  other  words,  by  causing  the  toes  to 
travel  a  considerable  distance  before  commencing  to 
raise  the  valves. 

In  order  to  get  a  clear  understanding  of  this,  the 
student  can  refer  to  the  diagram  of  the  Stevens  cut  off, 
page  22,  and  consider  the  steam-lifting  toes  IB  B,  in 
that  diagram,  in  the  same  light  as  the  valve  levers  // 
of  Fig.  1  in  the  above.  The  principle  on  which  the 
two  kinds  of  cut  offs  are  operated  is  precisely  alike, 
the  only  difference  being  that  one  is  made  adjustable 
and  the  other  is  not. 

Some  of  the  boats  plying  on  the  upper  rivers  have 
stern  wheels,  i.  e.,  one  paddle  wheel  applied  at  and 
projecting  over  the  stern  the  whole  width  of  the  boat. 
Many  of  such  of  300  tons  burthen  draw  only  from  16 
to  20  inches  of  water :  lightness  of  machinery,  compat- 
ible with  strength,  is  therefore  of  the  first  importance 
in  such  vessels.  The  boilers  of  all  of  them  are,  as  a 
rule,  placed  near  and  fronting  the  bow ;  and  as  the 
stern  wheel  variety  involves  the  necessity  of  placing 
the  engines  near  the  stern,  the  steam  pipes  are  as  a 
consequence  exceedingly  long,  not  unfrequently  from 
90  to  100  feet  or  more,  thus  causing  still  further  loss 
from  condensation  of  the  steam.  It  is  proper,  however, 
to  remark,  that  when  coal  can  be  furnished,  as  it  is  on 
the  upper  rivers,  at  less  than  one  dollar  per  ton,  econ- 
omy of  fuel  is  a  secondary  consideration.  It  is  also 
proper  to  state  that  the  owners  and  operators  of  the 
boats  are  slow  to  make  improvements  in  their  steam 
machinery,  even  when  the  advantages  of  such  can  be 
practically  demonstrated.  As  an  instance  of  this,  we 
may  mention  that  spring  cylinder  piston  packing,  so 


168  WESTEEIST    KIVER   BOAT   ENGEO3. 

long  successfully  applied  to  the  pistons  of  all  types  of 
engines,  is  now,  the  year  1862,  introduced  in  the  river 
engines  for  the  first  time. 

It  is  to  be  regretted  that  the  Indicator,  engine  reg- 
isters, and  correct  guages  have  not  conie  into  use,  and 
records  kept  on  board  of  some  of  the  boats,  so  that 
correct  data  for  calculating  their  efficiencies  and  com- 
parative economy  could  be  had.  If  we  are  not  misin- 
formed, Mr.  S.  H.  Gilinan  is  the  only  engineer  who  ever 
applied  the  Indicator  and  made  experimental  tests  for 
the  purpose  of  getting  correct  results  from  the  Missis- 
sippi steamers.  Among  the  few  records  kept  by  him, 
we  select  for  the  benefit  of  those  interested  that  of  the 
"  Magnolia,"  one  of  the  finest  and  largest  steamers  ply- 
ing on  the  lower  Mississippi  when  the  record  was  taken, 
namely,  in  the  year  1853,  and  published  immediately 
afterward  in  the  "  Franklin  Institute  Journal." 

The  diagrams  taken  from  the  'cylinders  of  that  ves- 
sel showed  the  valves  to  have  been  set  without  lead, 
and  that  the  engines  passed  the  centres  with  the  un- 
balanced pressure  of  60  Ibs.  per  square  inch ;  the 
stroke  being  10  feet,  and  the  steam  following  the  pis- 
tons 6  feet  before  being  cut  off — that  is  to  say,  both 
the  steam  and  exhaust  valves  opened  and  shut  pre- 
cisely at  the  end  of  the  stroke,  and  that  the  steam  was 
expanded  down  to  60  Ibs.  pressure  above  the  atmos- 
phere when  the  pistons  reached  the  ends  of  the  cylinx 
ders. 


WESTERN   EIVER   BOAT   ENGINE.  169 


DIMENSIONS  AND  PROPORTIONS  OP  THE  MAGNOLIA. 

Length  from  stem  to  stern 295  feet. 

Breadth  of  beam 35   " 

Breadth  of  floor 28   " 

Depth  of  hold 9   » 

Draft  of  water  when  light 4   « 

Tonnage,  carpenters'  measurement         .        .        .        .914  tons. 
Diameter  of  water  wheels  .'.....          40  feet. 

Length  of  bucket 12  feet  6  in. 

Width  of     do 2  feet. 

Revolutions  per  minute  up  stream         .        .        .        .       13.5. 
Diameter  of  cylinders        ......          30  inches. 

Length  of  stroke 10  feet. 

Length  of  connecting  rod 35   " 

Point  of  cutting  off  steam  from  commencement     .        .          6   " 

Number  of  boilers 6 

Length  of  each  boiler 30  feet. 

Diameter  of  each  boiler 42  inches. 

Diameter  of  each  flue 16     " 

Grate  area 98.4  sq.  ft. 

Diameter  of  each  chimney 5  feet. 

-  Height  of  chimneys  above  grates 80   " 

Area  over  each  bridge  wall 42.7  sq.  ft. 

Area  of  cross  section  of  all  flues 16.7      " 

Area  of  cross  section  of  two  chimneys  .        .        .        39.3      u 

Heating  surface  of  all  the  boilers      ....        2617.8      " 
Proportion  of  grate  to  heating  surface  .         .         .     1  to  26.4 

Proportion  of  grate  to  area  bridge  wall    .        .        .         1  to    0.47 
Horse  power  developed  by  engines       ....     1229 

The  fuel  consumed  was  wood :  no  correct  results 
as  regards  evaporation,  or  coal  per  horse  power  per 
hour,  therefore  given. 

In  conclusion,  we  would  earnestly  direct  the  atten- 
tion of  western  engineers  to  a  study  of  the  subjects 
here  presented,  especially  the  Indicator  and  its  use. 
We  have  witnessed  some  very  faulty  working  engines 
on  the  Ohio,  occasioned  principally  by  the  manner  of 
working  the  steam ;  i.  e.,  the  valves  not  being  opened 
and  shut  at  the  proper  points  of  the  stroke.  On  this, 


170  WESTERN    BIVEK   BOAT   ENGINE. 

everything  else  being  in  order,  depends  the  regularity 
of  motion  and  smooth  working  of  the  engine.  It  is  true 
that  much  may  be  gained  by  practical  tests ;  that  is, 
by  giving  more  or  less  lead  to  the  steam  valves,  and 
by  closing  the  exhaust  valves  sooner  or  later  to  give 
more  or  less  cushion  for  the  pistons  to  bring  up  against, 
until  the  engines  are  found  to  perform  best ;  but  nothing 
accurate  can  be  arrived  at  without  the  application  of 
the  Indicator  to  every  cylinder.  It  is  therefore  highly 
important  that  every  engineer  having  charge  should 
understand  that  instrument  and  its  use.  The  diagrams 
will  at  first  sight  doubtless  appear  intricate  and  diffi- 
cult to  comprehend,  by  many  of  those  considering 
themselves  entirely  practical;  but  a  little  study  of 
chapter  2  of  this  work,  together  with  a  few  applica- 
tions of  the  instrument,  and  some  perseverance,  will 
soon  overcome  all  difficulties,  and  result  in  a  clear  un- 
derstanding of  the  subject,  and  a  high  appreciation  of 
its  importance. 


CHAPTER    VII 

BOILEKS,    ETC. 

\ 

BOILERS  being  the  source  from  which  the  power  to 
actuate  steam  engines  is  derived,  it  becomes  of  the  first 
importance  that  not  only  the  best  and  most  improved 
types  be  used,  but  also  that  the  proportions  be  such  as 
to  secure  the  highest  results. 

Since  the  introduction  of  steam  to  sea  and  river 
navigation,  many  varieties  of  boilers  have  been  de- 
signed, tried,  and  abandoned,  and  many  others  having 
but  little  merit  are  still  in  use.  As  it  is  not,  howevery 
the  purpose  of  these  notes  to  give  the  history  of  in- 
ventions, but  to  assist  in  directing  the  mind  of  the  stu- 
dent into  a  channel  of  reasoning  for  himself,  we  will 
for  the  present  be  content  with  mentioning  only  a  few 
of  those  now  most  generally  used  ;  namely,  the  Martin 
water  tube,  the  horizontal  fire  tube,  and  the  western 
river  boilers. 

In  designing  a  boiler  for  a  steam  vessel,  there  are 
many  elements  to  be  considered  ;  such  as  cost,  proper 
materials,  strength  to  bear  the  intended  pressure,  quan- 
tity of  steam  to  be  furnished  in  a  given  time,  space  occu- 
pied, weight,  circulation  of  water,  durability,  facilities 
for  cleaning  and  repairing,  requisite  water  and  steam 
room,  heating  and  grate  surface,  area  through  flues, 
and  area  and  height  of  smoke  pipe. 


172 


BOILERS,    ETC. 


All  things  being  equal,  that  boiler  producing  the 
largest  weight  of  steam  per  given  weight  of  combusti- 
ble is  the  best  boiler ;  that  is,  evaporating  the  greatest 
number  of  pounds  of  water  per  pound  of  fuel  By 
combustible  is  meant  that  portion  of  the  fuel  put  into 
the  furnaces,  minus  the  ashes,  clinker,  and  refuse  re- 
moved. 

t 


The  above  drawing  represents  a  side  elevation  of 
the  water-tube  boiler,  with  the  tubes  arranged  verti- 
cally above  the  furnaces,  as  patented  by  D.  B.  Martin, 
Esq.,  late  Engineer-in-Chief  of  the  U.  S.  Navy. 

These  boilers  are  almost  exclusively  employed  in 
the  steamers  of  our  navy. 


BOILERS,   ETC.  173 


EXPLANATION   OF   THE   DRAWING. 

The  line  r  s  represents  side  and  bottom  of  the 
ship ;  o  o  <?,  boiler  keelsons,  or.  timbers  on  which  the 
boiler  rests ;  «,  ash  pit ;  <?,  furnace  door ;  £,  grates ;  </, 
furnace ;  m,  back  connection ;  e  6,  the  vertical  tubes 
containing  the  water  within  them,  and  surrounded  by 
the  products  of  combustion  £,  arch  over  furnace  ;  A, 
line  of  water  level ;  k,  steam  room ;  I,  steam  chimney ; 
g,  passage  of  gases  to  smoke  pipe ;  i,  water  bottom ;  n, 
fire-room. 

These  boilers  are  generally  situated  in  the  vessel 
face  to  face,  and  separated  by  a  fire  room  of  8  or  9 
feet,  in  the  fore  and  aft  direction. 

The  Horizontal  Fire  Tube,  or  common  marine 
tubular  boiler,  has  the  tubes  arranged  horizontally 
above  the  furnaces,  containing  the  products  of  combus- 
tion within,  and  surrounded  with  water.  In  all  other 
respects  the  two  types  of  boilers  can  be  constructed 
alike.  If,  therefore,  we  imagine  all  the  tubes  to  be 
removed  from  the  boiler  represented  by  the  drawing, 
and  a  set  of  tubes  arranged  in  it  horizontally  with  the 
smoke  and  gases  passing  through  them,  we  have  the 
common  marine  tubular  boiler  so  extensively  employed 
in  the  steamers  of  all  European  nations. 

To  an  inexperienced  eye  this  simple  difference  of 
arrangement  of  tubes  would  doubtless  appear  of  little 
or  no  consequence ;  but  as  simple  as  it  may  seem,  it 
nevertheless  makes  an  important  difference  in  the  re- 
sults utilized ;  also  in  many  other  respects,  as  will  be 
seen  from  the  extracts  given  below,  from  a  report  of  a 
Board  of  four  Chief  Engineers  of  the  Navy,  who,  by 


174  BOILERS,    ETC. 

the  directions  of  the  Navy  Department,  tested  the 
efficiency  of  the  two  types  of  boilers,  one  of  each  kind 
having  been  constructed  and  placed  on  board  the  U.  S. 
Steamer  "  San  Jacinto  "  for  the  purpose  of  precisely 
the  same  shell,  both  as  regards  form  and  dimensions. 
The  only  difference  between  them  was  in  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  tubes,  one  being  the  English  or  horizontal 
fire  tube  ;  the  other  of  the  water  tube  type.  This  ex- 
periment may  be  considered  the  most  important,  and 
certainly  the  most  extensive  and  accurate  ever  made 
with  marine  boilers. 


EXTRACTS   FROM   REPORT. 

The  experiments  were  made  to  determine  the  rela- 
tive evaporative  efficiencies  of  the  two  boilers,  under 
the  conditions  of  actual  practice  on  board  marine 
steamers.  For  this  purpose,  a  short  experiment  would 
be  valueless  from  the  impossibility  of  knowing  whether 
the  condition  of  the  fires  were  exactly  the  same  at  the 
commencement  and  at  the  end,  from  the  inequality  in 
firing ;  from  the  different  proportions  of  refuse  found 
in  different  weights  of  coal ;  from  fluctuations  in  draft ; 
from  losses  by  cleaning  the  fires  ;  and  from  the  differ- 
ent quantity  of  air  in  proportion  to  fuel  admitted  at 
different  times.  It  was  therefore  considered  necessary 
that  the  experiments  with  each  boiler  should  continue 
uninterruptedly  four  days,  or  96  hours. 

The  weight  of  water  evaporated  was  ascertained 
from  the  steam  pressure  in  the  cylinders  at  the  end  of 
the  stroke  of  piston,  as  given  by  the  indicator.  The 
cost  of  this  evaporation  was  the  weight  of  combustible 


BOILERS,    ETC,  175 

consumed.  ******  Every  pound  of  coal  put 
into  the  furnace,  and  every  pound  of  ashes,  clinker,  and 
refuse  removed  was  weighed  each  hour.  The  experi- 
ments were  conducted  in  precisely  the  same  manner 
with  both  boilers,  and  as  follows ;  namely :  At  the 
commencement,  no  account  was  taken  of  the  coal  re- 
quired to  raise  steam,  or  of  the  temperature  of  the 
water  in  the  boilers ;  but  after  the  steam  was  raised 
to  22  Ibs.  per  square  inch  pressure  above  the  atmos- 
phere, the  level  of  the  water  in  the  boiler  was  noted, 
the  condition  of  the  fires  estimated  as  nearly  as  pos- 
sible by  the  eye,  and  the  engines  started.  At  the  end 
of  each  experiment,  the  water  in  the  boiler  and  the 
condition  of  the  fires  were  left  as  at  the  commence- 
ment. The  experiments  with  both  boilers  were  begun 
and  ended  at  midday,  and  continued  uninterruptedly 
96  hours.  During  that  time,  the  boiler  steam  pres- 
sure and  the  vacuum  in  the  condenser,  by  barometer 
gauges,  were  noted  every  5  minutes ;  and  at  the  close 
of  each  hour  there  was  recorded  for  that  hour  the 
mean  steam  pressure  and  vacuum  ;  the  temperature  of 
the  engine  room,  of  the  fire  room,  of  the  salt  and  fresh 
water  hot  wells,  and  of  the  injection  water;  also  the 
weight  of  coal  thrown  into  the  furnaces,  and  the 
weight  of  dry  refuse  in  ashes,  clinkers,  and  fine  coal 
withdrawn.  Every  hour  an  indicator  double  diagram 
was  taken  from  both  cylinders,  and  from  the  mean  of 
the  final  pressures  as  given  by  these  diagrams  the 
evaporation  was  calculated.  ******  At  the 
commencement  of  each  experiment,  the  boiler  was  filled 
with  sea  water ;  and  at  the  expiration  of  every  hour 
the  saturation  was  recorded ;  also  the  number  of  inches 


176 


BOILERS,    ETC. 


in  depth  of  water  blown  off  to  maintain  it  at  1^  times 
the  natural  concentration. 

The  number  of  double  strokes  made  by  the  pistons 
were  taken  by  a  self-registering  counter. 

The  same  firemen  fired  both  boilers,  and  the  same 
engineers  directed  them.  The  experiments  were  first 
made  on  the  Horizontal  Fire-Tube  Boilers  ;  they  were 
begun  at  noon  on  the  10th  of  June,  1859 ;  and  after 
being  completed,  the  steam  was  shut  off  from  it  and 
let  on  from  the  Vertical  Water-Tube  Boiler,  without 
stopping  the  engines.  The  coal  was  Pennsylvania  an- 
thracite. 

RESULTS  OF  THE  EXPERIMENTS. 


English  Horizon- 

Martin's  Vertical 

tal  Fire-Tube 

Water-Tube 

Boiler. 

Boiler. 

Total  number  01  Ib..  31  coal  consumed    . 

100436.00 

92512.00 

of  refuse  ashes,  etc.     . 

24908,00 

24178.00 

"    of  combustible  consumed 

75528.00 

68334.00 

Per  centum  of  coal  in  refuse        .... 

24.80 

26.14 

Mean  gross  horses  power  developed  by  the  engines 
Mean  number  of  Ibs.  of  coal  consumed  per  hour 

187.25 
1046.21 

201.07 
963.67 

Mean  No.  of  Ibs.  of  coal  consumed  per  sq.ft.  of  grate 

9.7 

9.00 

Total  No.  of  Ibs.  of  water  evaporated  from  feed 

water  of  100°  Fah  

.671813455 

.720    6914 

Pounds  of  water  evaporated  from  feed  water  tem- 

perature of  100°  Fah.  by  1  Ib.  of  coal    . 
Pounds  of  water  evaporated  from  feed  water  of 

6.7 

7.8 

100°  Fah.  by  1  Ib.  of  combustible      ~  .  . 

8.9 

10.6 

COMPARATIVE  ADVANTAGES  AND  DISADVANTAGES. — 
We  are  directed  by  your  order  to  report  to  the  De- 
partment the  relative  advantages  and  disadvantages 
of  the  two  kinds  of  boiler  as  regards  space  occupied, 
weight,  cost,  accessibility  for  cleaning  and  repaivs,  du- 
rability, evaporative  efficiency,  and  the  relative  quan» 
titles  of  steam  that  can  be  furnished  in  equal  times. 

1st :  As  regards  space— In  the  particular  specimens 


BOILERS,    ETC.  17  7 

experimented  on,  the  space  occupied  by  both  types  of 
boiler  was  equal,  but  not  so  the  area  of  contained 
heating  surface.  If  the  proper  measure  of  that  surface 
be,  as  we  think  it  is,  the  extent  exposed  to  the  recep- 
tion of  heat  from  the  products  of  combustion,  then  the 
heating  surface  in  the  vertical  water-tube  boiler  ex- 
ceeded that  in  the  horizontal  fire-tube  boiler  by  nearly 
23|  per  centum  of  the  latter.  If,  however,  it  be  meas- 
ured by  the  extent  from  which  water  is  evaporated, 
then  the  superiority  will  still  remain  with  the  vertical 
water-tube  boiler,  but  reduced  to  Yy  per  centum. 

2d :  As  regards  the  weight  of  the  two  Boilers. — By 
referring  to  the  table  of  their  dimensions  and  weights, 
it  will  be  seen  that  in  this  respect  the  experimental 
boilers  were  nearly  equal,  the  horizontal  fire  tube  hav- 
ing a  slight  advantage  in  lightness ;  but  if  the  aggre- 
gate weight  of  boiler  and  contained  water  at  the 
steaming  level  be  compared,  then  the  vertical  water 
tube  has  a  superiority  of  nearly  5£  per  centum  over  its 
competitor. 

3d:  Cost. — In  this  particular  the  horizontal  fire- 
tube  boiler  is  slightly  the  cheapest,  but  the  difference 
is  unimportant. 

4th :  Accessibility  for  cleaning  and  repairs. — For 
the  removal  of  scale  or  any  insoluble  sediment  on  the 
water  surfaces  of  the  tubes,  the  vertical  water-tube 
boiler  has  a  decisive  superiority  from  the  complete 
and  easy  manner  in  which  the  entire  of  those  surfaces 
can  be  reached  by  a  scaling  tool  and  cleaned  mechani- 
cally. With  the  horizontal  fire-tube  boiler  this  ope- 
ration is  very  tedious  and  difficult,  and  at  the  best  is 
only  partial.  It  may  indeed  be  said  that  the  whole 
of  the  horizontal  tubes  cannot  be  scaled  without  the 


1*78  BOILEKS,    ETC. 

removal  of  a  portion  of  them ;  and  from  the  fact  of 
their  becoming  more  and  more  coated  with  scale  as 
their  age  increases,  their  evaporative  efficiency  will  be 
continuously  impaired  to  the  extent  of  the  loss  of  heat 
thus  intercepted.  On  the  other  hand,  the  horizontal 
fire  tubes  are  much  more  easily  and  completely  swept 
of  soot  and  deposit  from  the  furnaces ;  they  are  also 
more  easily  plugged  when  leaking.  Furthermore,  they 
are  only  about  one  fourth  the  number  of  the  vertical 
water  tubes,  and  the  liability  to  leakage  is  correspond- 
ingly lessened,  but  this  liability  is  so  trifling  as  to  be 
of  no  value  in  a  practical  estimate.  The  remaining 
portions  of  both  boilers  are  equally  accessible  for  clean- 
ing and  repairs. 

5th :  Durability. — We  have  no  data  on  which  to 
base  an  opinion  in  this  respect,  but  we  believe  both 
boilers  to  be  about  equal. 

6th  :  Evaporative  Efficiency. — The  relative  evapo- 
rative efficiency,  as  given  by  the  experiments,  applies 
rigorously  only  to  the  particular  specimens  of  the  types 
of  boiler  employed,  with  their  peculiarities  of  propor- 
tion and  under  the  conditions  of  the  trials ;  under  other 
conditions  and  with  other  proportions,  the  relative 
evaporative  efficiency  would  doubtless  be  different, 
and  in  direction- as  determined  by  better  or  worse  pro- 
portions, and  by  conditions  more  or  less  favorable  for 
one  kind  of  boiler  over  the  other.  The  proportions 
given  to  both  boilers  in  the  present  case,  however,  are 
such  as  are  now  generally  approved  in  practice.  With 
these  proportions  and  under  the  actual  conditions  of 
the  trials,  the  evaporative  efficiency  of  the  vertical 
water-tube  boiler  exceeds  that  of  the  horizontal  fire 
tube  by  18^  per  centum  of  the  evaporation  of  the  lat- 


WESTERN   RIVER   BOILERS.  179 

ter,  making  the  comparison  by  weight  of  combustible 
consumed ;  and  by  16|  per  centum  if  the  comparison 
be  made  by  weight  of  coal  consumed ;  the  former  is, 
of  course,  the  proper  result. 

Yth :  Relative  Quantities  of  Steam  that  can  be  fur- 
nished in  equal  times  by  the  two  Boilers. — In  this 
respect  the  superiority  remains  with  the  horizontal 
fire-tube  boiler,  in  which  the  combustion  of  the  fuel 
can  be  forced  to  a  considerably  greater  extent  than  in 
the  vertical  water-tube  boiler.  The  additional  steam, 
however,  thus  obtained  will  be  at  a  greater  pro-rata 
cost  of  coal,  but  we  have  no  data  to  determine  either 
the  increased  quantity  or  its  increased  cost. 

Finally,  in  view  of  the  much  greater  evaporative 
efficiency  of  the  vertical  water-tube  boiler,  and  of  the 
facility  and  completeness  with  which  it  may  be  scaled, 
— the  two  qualities  of  paramount  importance  with 
marine  boilers, — we  would  express  our  decided  opinion, 
that  its  superiority  over  the  horizontal  fire-tube  boiler 
is  so  strongly  marked  as  to  unquestionably  entitle  it 
to  the  preference. 

WESTERN    RIVER    BOILERS. 

The  first  steamboat  constructed  for  the  western 
rivers  had  cylindrical  boilers.  Since  that  date,  many 
types  of  boilers  have  been  made,  and  tried  on  board 
some  of  the  many  steamboats  navigating  those  immense 
inland  waters ;  but  none  of  them,  except  those  repre- 
sented by  the  following  drawings,  have  ever  gained 
general  favor.  In  consideration  of  this  fact,  of  the 
great  number  constructed  every  year  at  different 
places  on  the  rivers,  and  of  the  high  pressure  of  steam 
used,  they  deserve  more  than  a  passing  notice. 


180 


WESTEKX   RIVER   BOILERS. 


Transverse  Section  through  Front  Elevation. 

Fire  Bed. 


Longitudinal  Section  through  A  B  of  Front  View. 


WESTEEN    EIVEE    BOILEES.  181 

DESCEIPTION    OF    DEA WINGS. 

a,  ash  pit ;  b,  furnace  doors ;  c,  grate  bare ;  d,  flues ; 
E,  smoke  pipe ;  <7,  steam  room ;  F,  steam  drum ;  H, 
mud  blow  pipe ;  7j  feed ;  K,  brick  work. 

The  safety  valve  is  put  on  the  top  of  the  boiler 
shell.  These  boilers  are  placed  side  by  side  on  the 
deck  of  the  vessel,  near  ,ad  fronting  the  bow,  ar- 
ranged in  numbers  from  one  to  eight,  according  to  the 
size  of  the  boat. 

The  fronts  are  of  cast  iron,  resting  on  the  deck ; 
the  back  ends  are  also  supported  by  cast  brackets 
under  the  feed.  Brickwork  surrounds  the  outside,  and 
also  forms  the  bottom  of  the  lower  smoke  flues. 

The  only  variations  from  the  drawing  ever  made 
in  these  boilers,  consists  in  the  diameter  and  length  of 
shells,  and  diameter  and  number  of  flues. 

The  majority  are  two-flued ;  but  they  are  made 
with  four,  five,  and  six  flues,  varying  in  diameter  from 
5  to  18  inches  each.  The  shells  are  made  of  44,  42, 
38,  36,  and  34  inches  diameter,  with  lengths  varying 
from  32  to  22  feet.  The  iron  used  in  the  shells  of  the 
two  largest  diameters  is  -fa  of  an  inch  thick,  but  for 
those  of  40  inches  diameter  and  under  it  is  never  more 
than  £  inch  thick;  for  the  smallest  sizes  it  is  even 
occasionally  T3T  thick.  Tn  the  largest  flues  it  is  some- 
times TST  of  an  inch  thick,  but  for  all  medium  sizes  it 
is  £  inch.  The  heads  are  all  wrought  iron,  generally 
J-  of  an  inch  thick,  with  the  flanges  turned  on  the 
front  one. 

All  the  seams  are  single  riveted,  with  J-  rivets, 
many  of  which  are  driven  cold  in  all  seams  accessible 
for  the  purpose. 


182  TTESTEKN    RIVER    BOLLEKS. 

The  maximum  pressure  of  steam  carried  on  these 
boilers  is  about  150  Ibs.  per  square  inch;  but,  prior 
to  the  law  limiting  the  pressure,  from  200  to  220  Ibs. 
per  square  inch  was  not  an  unusual  daily  working 
pressure  on  a  boiler  of  40  inches  diameter  of  shell,  and 
i  inch  thickness  of  iron,  such  as  the  above  drawing 
represents;  and  although  many  explosions  occurred 
and  flues  were  collapsed  during  the  early  days  of  west- 
ern river  steam  navigation,  yet  all  of  them  have  been 
attributed  either  to  defective  materials,  imperfect  work- 
manship, incompetent  and  reckless  engineers,  or  to  the 
omission  of  steam  pumps  (Doctors,  as  they  are  called 
by  western  engineers)  to  supply  the  boilers  with 
water  during  the  time  that  the  boats  were  landing 
passengers  and  freight  at  the  different  stopping  points. 

All  the  iron  from  which  they  have  been  constructed 
within  the  past  few  years  has  been  made  from  cold- 
blast  charcoal  pigs,  worked  into  blooms  in  charcoal 
furnaces.  The  rivets  are  also  made  from  the  best  char- 
coal blooms.  In  fact,  their  success  as  regards  safety 
may  in  a  great  degree  be  attributed  to  the  superior 
quality  of  the  materials  used  in  their  construction. 

The  lifetime  of  the  boats  in  which  they  are  em- 
ployed is  averaged  at  five  years,  and  when  they  cease 
to  be  fit  for  use,  the  engines  are  transferred  to  a  new 
boat — sometimes  to  a  third,  and  occasionally  to  a 
fourth  boat :  the  boilers  are  never  used  on  the  second 
boat,  but  always  removed  to  the  shore,  and  worked  at 
reduced  pressures — the  objections  to  their  further  use 
on  board  vessels  being  their  reduced  strength  conse- 
quent upon  a  chemical  change  in  the  iron,  occasioned 
by  the  high  temperatures.  Hence  extreme  and  varied 
expansions  and  contractions ;  this  causes  crystallization, 


WESTERN    RIVER   BOILERS.  183 

and  the  sheets  to  crack  through  the  line  of  the  rivet 
holes  where  the  laps  come  directly  in  contact  with  the 
greatest  heat.  To  double  rivet  the  seams,  or  increase 
the  thickness  of  iron,  increases  the  evil ;  to  cut  out 
the  defective  piece  and  replace  it  with  a  new  piece  of 
iron  starts  fresh  leaks,  because  there  is  a  difference 
between  the  expansion  of  the  old  and  new  metal.  The 
only  remedy  is  to  remove  one  circle  of  sheets. 

The  products  of  combustion  are  discharged  into 
the  smoke  pipes  at  such  a  high  temperature  that  it 
involves  the  necessity  of  making  the  pipes  in  area  of 
cross  section  about  twice  that  of  the  flues.  The  dis- 
tance between  the  grates  and  bottoms  of  boilers  does 
not  often  exceed  16  inches.  The  coals  are  frequently 
piled  up  in  the  furnaces  to  the  boilers,  and  consequent 
upon  the  extreme  height  (sometimes  80  feet)  of  the 
pipes,  assisted  by  a  blast  of  steam  discharged  into  the 
back  end  of  the  flues,  or  the  exhaust  steam  admitted 
into  the  chimneys  on  the  locomotive  fashion,  the  draft 
is  very  strong,  the  combustion  rapid,  and  the  heat 
applied  to  the  boiler  iron  intense.  There  are  no  com- 
bustion chambers  or  provision  for  admitting  air  through 
holes  into  the  furnace  doors  or  back  of  the  grates.  The 
coal  is  highly  bituminous,  used  extravagantly,  and  as  a 
consequence  produces  large  volumns  of  dense  black 
smoke.  The  cheap  rate  at  which  this  coal  is  furnished 
is  the  only  excuse  for  making  no  efforts  to  economize 
it  and  prevent  the  smoke  nuisance. 

We  feel  convinced  that  time  must  effect  an  entire 
change  in  the  mode  of  generating  steam  on  the  western 
waters,  for  it  is  evident  that  tubular  boilers  can  be 
constructed  suitable  to  the  purpose,  that  will  not  only 
be  lighter  and  more  durable,  but  that  can  be  operated 


184  BOILER    FLUES. 

with  50  per  cent,  less  fuel  than  those  now  in  such  high 
favor. 

BOILER   FLUES. 

The  well  established  law  that  the  strength  of  cyl- 
inders is  inversely  as  their  diameters,  and  the  hitherto 
undisputed  axiom  among  practical  engineers  that  cyl- 
indrical tubes  or  boiler  flues  when  subjected  to  uniform 
external  pressure  were  equally  strong  in  every  part 
regardless  of  length,  led  to  erroneous  opinions  regard- 
ing the  strength  of  boiler  flues.  For  flues  to  collapse 
under  the  ordinary  working  pressure  of  steam,  in  what 
was  supposed  to  be  properly  proportioned  and  well 
made  boilers,  was  formerly  not  an  unusual  occurrence ; 
and  although  many  theories  were  advanced  on  the 
subject,  it  was  not  until  the  celebrated  English  engi- 
neer, William  Fairbairn,  LL.D.,  F.  R.  S.,  made  an  ex- 
tensive set  of  experiments  on  the  strengths  of  tubes  of 
various  forms,  sizes,  and  lengths,  that  the  hidden  weak 
ness  was  revealed.  These  experiments  were  made  by 
hydrostatic  pressure,  applied  both  externally  and  inter- 
nally, to  test  the  strength  under  ordinary  conditions 
of  practice,  and  they  proved  conclusively  that  the 
strength  of  flues  exposed  to  external  pressure,  as  ordi- 
narily used,  is  inversely  as  tlie  length;  that  is,  a  flue 
30  feet  long  will  collapse  with  just  half  the  pressure 
of  a  flue  15  feet  long,  everything  else  being  equal ;  in 
other  words,  a  flue  30  feet  long,  which  would  bear  a 
pressure  of  100  Ibs.  per  square  inch,  if  shortened  to  15 
feet,  or,  what  is  the  same  thing  in  effect,  if  it  be  hooped 
in  the  middle  of  its  length  by  angle  or  T  iron,  it  will 
then  bear  a  pressure  of  200  Ibs.  per  square  inch. 


BOILER   FLUES.  185 

If  this  important  law  had  been  familiar  to  the  en- 
gineer who  designed  the  boilers  of  the  "  Great  East- 
ern," the  disastrous  accident  which  attended  the  first 
trial  of  that  vessel  would  have  been  entirely  avoided. 
It  will  be  remembered  that  the  smoke  pipe  of  that  ship 
was  surrounded  by  a  water  jacket  for  the  purpose  of 
increasing  the  temperature  of  the  feed  water  previous 
to  entering  the  boilers.  This  jacket  contained  a  column 
of  water  nearly  forty  feet  in  height,  and  the  pipe  was 
six  feet  in  diameter  ;  there  was  consequently  a  pressure 
of  steam  in  the  jacket  which,  united  to  the  heavy  col- 
umn of  water  at  the  base,  was  sufficient  to  collapse  the 
pipe,  and  cause  the  fearful  accident. 

Another  source  of  weakness  in  lap  joint  riveted 
flues  must  also  be  noticed ;  namely,  the  deviation  from 
a  true  circle  common  to  the  lap. 

Although  it  had  long  been  established,  that  a  circle 
is  the  strongest  possible  form  that  can  be  made,  and 
that  no  deviation  from  it  can  be  made  without  reduc- 
tion of  strength,  yet  it  was  not  previously  known  that 
a  9-inch  diameter  of  tube  was  reduced  in  strength 
more  than  one-third  by  deviating  from  a  circle  only 
sufficient  to  make  a  lap  joint,  the  ratio  being  as  T  to 
10 — so  proved  by  the  tests. 

These  facts  are  conclusive,  in  showing  the  necessity 
of  adhering  to  the  true  circle  for  boiler  flues  using 
high  pressure  steam. 

In  consideration  of  this,  and  the  reduction  in 
strength  consequent  upon  the  rivet  holes,  it  will  be 
readily  seen  that  the  lap-welded  flues,  which  are  both 
seamless  and  round,  have  superior  advantages  over 
those  now  in  use  on  the  western  waters. 


186  BIVETLNG. 


BrVETESTG. 

The  weakest  point  is"  the  measure  of  strength ; 
therefore,  in  the  construction  of  steam  boilers,  the  riv- 
eted joints  require  close  attention,  and  should  receive 
the  best  workmanship.  They  are  either  single  or 
double  riveted,  and  the  holes  should  not  only  be 
punched  the  proportionate  distances  apart,  but  should 
exactly  correspond  with  each  other,  so  that  no  ream- 
ing need  be  required. 

In  the  United  States  there  are  three  mechanical 
modes  of  uniting  the  sheets  together ;  namely,  ma- 
chine  riveting,  and  hot  and  cold  hand  riveting.  On 
the  seaboard,  all  kinds  of  boilers  are  riveted  by  the 
two  first-named  methods,  in  both  of  which  the  rivets 
are  put  in  hot.  West  of  the  Alleghanies,  all  riveting 
is  done  by  hand,  and  at  Pittsburgh,  Louisville,  and 
other  places,  the  rivets  are  driven  cold  in  all  places 
accessible  for  the  purpose. 

For  the  cold  process,  a  superiority  is  claimed  con- 
sequent upon  the  holes  being  well  filled  with  the  body 
of  the  rivets ;  that  is,  there  can  be  no  contraction — 
hence  reduction  in  the  strength  and  in  the  rivets' 
diameters  after  the  workmen  cease  hammering  on  the 
heads.  The  reverse  must  be  the  case  when  driven 
hot ;  for,  in  cooling,  the  diameters  are  reduced  by  con- 
traction. Moreover,  none  but  the  best  quality  of  iron 
can  be  used  in  rivets  driven  cold ;  because,  if  the  iron 
be  inferior,  it  is  sure  to  crack  or  split  through  the 
head,  each  one  being  tested  by  the  heading. 

For  hot  riveting,  it  is  claimed  that,  in  cooling,  the 
rivets  contract  in  length,  drawing  the  sheets  more 


187 

closely  together,  thereby  creating  adhesion  sufficient 
to  add  to  the  strength  of  the  joint.  Mr.  Clarke,  Resi- 
dent Engineer  of  the  Britannia  Bridge,  made  some 
experiments  to  determine  the  value  of  this.  Three 
plates  were  riveted  together  by  a  machine,  maintain- 
ing a  temperature  of  900  degrees  in  the  rivets ;  each 
outside  plate  had  a  circular  hole  in  which  the  rivets 
fitted  exactly;  but  in  the  centre  one  the  hole  was 
oval,  or  2^  inches  long  for  a  £  rivet,  and  the  rivet  was 
not  allowed  to  touch  either  end  of  this  hole.  A  strain 
was  then  put  on  the  centre  plate  till  it  began  to  slide, 
which  it  did  abruptly.  Several  trials  were  made,  and 
the  least  result  was  an  adhesion  equal  to  4£  tons  with 
-f  rivets.  Mr.  Clarke  infers  from  this  experiment  that, 
by  judicious  riveting,  the  adhesion  may  in  many  cases 
be  nearly  sufficient  to  counterbalance  the  weakening 
of  the  plates  from  punching  the  holes.  In  this  par- 
ticular we  regard  his  opinion  as  in  error ;  for  if  he  had 
continued  the  strain  on  the  plate  until  it  parted,  or  the 
rivets  broke,  he  would  doubtless  have  found  that  the 
total  pressure,  or  breaking  strain,  would  have  been  56 
per  cent,  if  single  riveted,  and  75  per  cent,  if  double 
riveted,  of  the  sheet,  as  fully  tested  by  other  experi- 
ments. Theoretically,  there  is  a  gain  from  adhesion 
in  hot-riveted  joints,  but  practically  this  seems  to  be 
lost  by  the  contraction  of  the  rivets7  diameter,  thus 
making  the  total  or  breaking  pressure  the  same. 

In  our  western  river  boilers,  where  the  pressure  of 
steam  used  is  higher  than  in  any  part  of  the  world,  no 
difficulty  has  ever  been  experienced  from  the  cold- 
riveted  joints  not  being  closely  united  and  perfectly 
tight ;  and  as  regards  strength  compared  with  the  hot 


188  KIVETING. 

riveted,  superiority  is  claimed  by  those  having  cold- 
riveted  boilers  in  charge. 

In  either  mode  of  hand  riveting  the  rivets  can  be 
seriously  injured  by  too  much  hammering,  and  in  any 
case  by  overheating.  i)ue  regard  should  be  had  to 
the  temperature,  and  the  blows  of  the  hammer  should 
be  hard  and  quick,  and  not  continued  longer  than 
necessary  to  form  the  head.  Machine  riveting  has  the 
advantage  of  forming  the  head  at  a  single  blow,  and 
the  rapidity  with  which  the  work  can  be  performed 
must  always  give  it  preference  over  all  other  methods 
where  it  can  be  employed. 

It  is  to  be  regretted  that  no  extended  set  of  ex- 
periments have  ever  been  made  in  this  country  to 
determine  the  relative  strengths  of  the  different  modes 
of  riveting  and  uniting  the  sheets  of  steam  boilers  and 
other  iron  structures ;  also  to  test  the  relative  value 
of  the  materials  used  in  this  country  at  the  present 
day,  for  it  must  be  evident  that  although  the  results  of 
European  experimenters  on  iron  and  steel  are  of  value 
to  us,  yet  they  cannot  be  regarded  as  entirely  applica- 
ble to  our  constructions,  because  our  iron  ores,  the 
temperature  of  blast  of  smelting  furnaces,  and  manner 
of  working  the  metal  through  the  different  processes, 
and  the  fuel  used,  all  differ  in  a  large  degree  from 
those  abroad. 

In  the  year  1861  we  constructed  an  excellent  hy- 
drostatic machine  at  the  Navy  Yard,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y., 
for  this  very  purpose,  and  were  about  to  commence  an 
extended  and  complete  set  of  such  experiments,  when 
the  war  broke  out,  and  we  were  relieved  from  that 
station  for  other  duties. 

The  only  published  account  of  experiments  on  this 


SUPERHEATED    STEAM. 


189 


subject  of  any  value,  known  to  us,  are  those  made  in 
England  by  Mr.  Fairbairn,  and  at  Glasgow,  Scotland, 
by  David  Kirkaldy,  Esq. 

The  following  is  given  by  the  former  author,  as  ex- 
hibiting the  strongest  form  and  best  proportions  of 
such  joints,  as  deduced  from  his  experiments  and  ac- 
tual practice. 


Thickness  of 

Diameter  of 

Length  of  rivet 

Distance  from 

Quantity  of  Lap  in 

plates. 

rivet. 

from  head. 

centre  to  centre. 

single  riveted. 

double  riveted. 

in.      16th. 

in.    Ratio. 

in 

Ratio. 

in. 

Ratio. 

in. 

Ratio. 

in 

Ratio. 

0.19=    3 

0.38=    2 

0.8S 

4.5 

1.25 

1.25 

6 

2.10 

10 

0.25=    4 

0.50=    2 

1.13 

4.5 

1.50 

1.50 

6 

2.50 

10 

031=    5 

0.63=    2 

1.38 

4.5 

1.63 

1.88 

6 

3.15 

10 

0.38=    6 

0.75=    2 

1.63 

4.5 

1.75 

> 

2.00 

5.5 

3.33 

9.2 

0.50=    8 

0.81  =1.5 

2.25 

4.5 

2.<K 

2.25 

4.5 

3.75 

7.5 

0.63  =  10 

0.94  =1.5 

2.75 

4. 

2.50 

2.75     I  45 

4.58 

7.5 

0.75  =  12 

1.13=1.5 

8.25 

4. 

3.00 

4 

3.25 

4.5 

5.42 

7.5 

SUPEEHEATED    STEAM 

Is  steam,  the  temperature  of  which  is  increased  after 
it  leaves  the  boilers.  This  is  generally  accomplished 
by  passing  it  through  a  series  of  pipes  exposed  to  the 
heat  of  the  discharged  gases  in  the  chimney.  (See 
drawing  of  such  an  apparatus  in  Nystrom's  Pocket 
Book,  page  259.)  The  advantage  to  be  derived  from 
the  process  depends  on  the  condition  in  which  the 
steam  leaves  the  boilers.  The  theory  is — steam  gen- 
erated in  boilers,  and  being  supplied  to  engines  in 
operation,  carries  with  it  to  the  cylinders  water  in  the 
vesicular  state ;  that  is,  in  minute  globules  or  innumer- 
able particles;  and  that  if  it  be  passed  through  a 
superheating  apparatus,  these  small  globules  are  ex- 
panded into  steam,  thus  utilizing  its  full  effect.  This 
vesicular  state  in  which  steam  is  found  in  boilers  when 
in  active  operation  differs  more  or  less  according  to 


190  StJPEKHEATED    STEAM. 

the  construction  of  the  boilers.  In  those  properly 
proportioned,  with  elevated  steam  chimneys,  exposing 
much  heating  surface  to  the  action  of  the  steam,  the 
quantity  of  water  carried  to  the  cylinders  in  this  state 
is  inconsiderable ;  hence,  in  boilers  so  constructed,  the 
application  of  a  superheating  apparatus  would  not  pay 
the  extra  cost  and  complication.  When,  therefore,  we 
are  informed  of  large  gains  in  the  consumption  of  fuel 
resulting  from  the  application  of  such  an  apparatus  to 
a  set  of  boilers,  it  becomes  necessary  to  examine  the 
construction  of  the  boilers  before  giving  credit  of  the 
results  to  superheating  the  steam. 

In  some  steamers  (and  this  applies  especially  to 
many  of  those  belonging  to  the  English),  where  the 
boilers  are  very  low,  and  but  little  height  to  the  steam 
chimneys,  gains  in  the  consumption  of  fuel  of  from  20 
to  40  per  cent,  have  been  effected  by  the  application 
of  the  superheater ;  whereas  the  same  kind  of  an 
apparatus,  if  applied  to  some  of  our  Hudson  River 
steamers,  would  not  probably  make  an  average  gain  of 
5  per  cent. 

In  the  summer  of  1854,  by  the  invitation  of  E.  K. 
Collins,  Esq.,  we  witnessed  some  extensive  experiments 
on  superheating  steam,  on  board  the  splendid,  but  ill- 
fated  U.  S.  Mail  Steamship  "Arctic."  In  this  case, 
the  superheating  steam  pipes  were  carried  down  the 
back  connexions  and  through  the  furnaces  close  to  the 
arches,  connecting  in  the  engine  room  to  one  common 
chamber,  to  which  a  branch  pipe  from  the  usual  main 
steam  pipe  was  also  attached.  Thus  the  arrangements 
were  perfected  to  work  the  steam :  1st,  in  the  usual 
way,  and  at  the  ordinary  pressure  and  temperature ; 
2d,  in  a  highly  heated  condition,  from  the  pipes  passing 


DRAFT.  191 

through  the  furnaces ;  3d,  at  a  medium  temperature, 
that  is,  the  highly  heated  steam  mixed  in  the  chamber 
with  the  ordinary  working  steam.  So  that  a  fair  op- 
portunity was  offered,  on  a  large  scale,  to  test  the  ben- 
efit to  be  derived  from  superheating  the  steam  to 
various  temperatures  ;  and  the  results  of  the  trial 
proved  conclusively  that  the  saving  of  fuel  would  not 
pay  the  expense  of  the  apparatus  on  board  that  vessel, 
to  say  nothing  of  the  labor  of  keeping  it  in  order. 

This  vesicular  state  in  which  steam  is  found  in 
boilers  must  not  be  confounded  with  foaming  or 
priming,  explained  at  page  81. 


DRAFT. 

Draft  is  produced  by  the  difference  of  temperature 
between  a  column  of  heated,  consequently  rarefied  air, 
in  a  chimney,  and  the  surrounding  atmosphere ;  and 
this  draft  will  be  strong  and  effective  just  in  propor- 
tion to  the  difference  of  temperatures  and  the  height 
of  the  column.  The  cold  and  heavy  column  outside 
the  chimney  presses  down,  and  forces  up  the  warm 
and  light  column  within.  The  greater  the  difference 
between  the  weight  of  these  two  columns  the  greater 
will  be  the  draft.  A  column  of  two  feet  high  rises,  or 
is  pressed  up,  with  twice  as  much  force  as  a  column  of 
one  foot,  and  so  in  proportion  for  all  heights  to  a  cer- 
tain extent,  just  as  two  or  more  corks  strung  together 
and  immersed  in  water  tend  upward  with  proportionally 
more  force  than  a  single  cork.  In  a  chimney  where  a 
column  of  hot  air  one  foot  in  height  is  one  ounce 
lighter  than  the  same  bulk  of  external  atmosphere,  if 
13 


192  DKAFT. 

the  chimney  be  fifty  feet  high,  the  air  and  smoke  in  it 
is  propelled  upward  with  a  power  of  fifty  ounces. 

In  a  correctly  proportioned  chimney,  the  area  of 
cross  section  of  the  flues — smoke  passage — should  grad- 
ually contract  from  bottom  to  top,  being  the  widest  at 
the  bottom  and  smallest  at  the  top ;  because  at  the 
base  the  hot  column  of  expanded  air  and  gases  fills  the 
entire  passage,  but  in  ascending  they  gradually  cool 
and  contract,  occupying  less  space. 

There  is  a  limit  to  the  useful  height  of  a  chimney, 
consequent  upon  the  friction  of  the  heated  air  and 
products  of  combustion,  and  this  limit  is  dependent  on 
the  temperature  of  the  discharged  gases  compared  to 
the  area  of  cross  section  of  the  chimney. 


APPENDIX. 


MATERIALS. 

THERE  is  no  subject  connected  with  the  Engineer- 
ing profession  more  important  to  be  understood  than 
materials.  Yet  young  engineers  rarely  give  it  study, 
and  but  few  of  those  in  the  higher  grades  have  a 
thorough  knowledge  of  the  materials  used  in  the  con- 
struction of  steam  machinery;  indeed,  many  cannot 
distinguish  the  best  from  the  inferior  quality  of  pig 
metal,  composition  of  copper  and  tin  from  copper  and 
zinc,  or  charcoal,  flange  boiler  plate  from  ordinary 
puddle  plate. 

It  is  in  a  large  degree  owing  to  this  fact  that  we 
have  had  so  many  break  downs  in  our  sea-going  steam- 
ers, and  that  the  weights  of  those  parts  made  of 
wrought  and  cast  iron  are  so  much  in  excess  of  what 
is  necessary  for  the  best  materials.  We  have,  there- 
fore, concluded  to  devote  a  short  space  to  this  branch 
of  the  profession,  solely  with  the  view  of  directing  the 
mind  of  the  young  engineer  to  this  channel  as  one  of 
his  studies. 

Some  of  the  following  has  been  extracted  from  the 
Army  Ordnance  Manual,  and  all  of  it  accords  with 
our  experience  of  many  months  among  the  various 


194  CAST   IRON. 

iron  rolling  mills,  furnaces,  and  steel  works  of  Penn- 
sylvania. 

IRON. 

Of  all  the  useful  metals  none  plays  so  important 
and  extensive  a  part  in  the  steam  engine  as  iron.  It 
is  obtained  from  ores,  in  which  it  generally  exists  in 
the  state  of  an  oxide  combined  with  earthy  or  stony 
matters,  and  frequently  with  carbon,  phosphorus,  sul- 
phur, arsenic,  magnesia,  manganese,  &c.  Iron  ores  are 
classed  and  named  according  to  their  combinations,  as 
magnetic,  specular,  clay  iron-stone,  red  hematite,  and 
brown  hematites — the  last  named  is  the  ore  from 
which  the  Salisbury  and  Juniatta  irons  are  extracted, 
the  first  from  which  the  Swedish  iron  is  obtained, 
and  the  clay  iron-stone  that  from  which  the  greater 
portion  of  English  iron  is  made.  For  producing  some 
varieties  of  pig,  different  kinds  of  ores  are  mixed.  The 
foreign  substances  which  iron  is  found  to  contain  mod- 
ify, in  a  marked  degree,  its  essential  properties.  Car- 
bon adds  to  its  hardness,  but  destroys  some  of  its 
characteristic  qualities,  and  produces  cast  iron  or  steel, 
according  to  the  proportion  of  carbon  it  contains ;  sul- 
phur renders  it  fusible,  difficult  to  weld,  and  brittle 
when  heated — hot  short.  Phosphorus  renders  it  cold 
short,  but  may  be  present  in  very  small  proportion 
without  effecting  injuriously  its  tenacity. 

CAST  IRON. 

The  process  of  making  cast  iron  depends  much  on 
the  kind  of  fuel  used — charcoal,  coke,  bituminous  and 
anthracite  coals  are  all  used,  and  the  quality  of  pig 
metal  is  influenced  to  a  great  extent  by  the  kind  of 


CAST   IRON.  195 

fuel,  as  well  as  by  the  temperature  of  the  blast  with 
which  the  ore  is  reduced.  When  anthracite  coal  is 
employed,  the  ore  is  placed  at  once  into  the  blast  fur- 
nace. When  charcoal  is  used,  the  ore  is  first  roasted, 
by  distributing  it  in  alternate  layers  with  waste  coal, 
wood,  or,  sometimes,  with  charcoal,  and  the  pile  thus 
formed  is  ignited  and  burned  in  the  open  air.  For 
the  more  refractory  ores  a  kiln  similar  to  that  used  for 
burning  lime  is  required.  The  ore  is  rendered,  by 
this  operation,  more  porous  and  easily  broken  into 
small  pieces,  by  which  it  is  more  readily  acted  upon 
in  the  smelting  furnace.  The  small  pieces  would  be 
disadvantageous  in  an  anthracite  furnace. 

Smelting  is  the  process  by  which  the  iron  is  sepa- 
rated from  the  refractory  substances  with  which  it  is 
combined  in  the  ore.  It  consists  in  raising  the  ore  to 
a  high  heat  in  contact  with  carbon  and  a  suitable  flux 
in  the  blast  or  smelting  furnace.  The  flux  unites  with 
the  earthy  matter  of  the  ore,  forming  a  glassy  sub- 
stance called  slag  or  cinder,  and  the  carbon  unites  with 
the  oxygen  of  the  ore,  setting  the  iron  free,  wThich  in 
turn  unites  with  a  portion  of  the  carbon  and  forms  a 
fusible  compound,  carburet  of  iron,  or  cast  iron. 

The  melted  iron  and  slag  descend  to  the  bottom 
of  the  furnace,  the  slag  forming  a  covering  to  the  pool 
of  iron  and  protecting  it  from  the  action  of  the  blast. 
As  they  accumulate,  the  slag  runs  off  over  the  dam, 
and  is  a  good  indication,  to  an  experienced  eye,  of  the 
quality  of  metal  the  furnace  is  making. 

The  furnace  is  generally  tapped  once  every  twelve 
hours,  and  the  metal  is  run  out  into  channels  formed 
in  the  sand,  and  is  known  as  pigs. 

Limestone  is  the  flux  used  for  most  ores ;  clay  is 


196  CAST   IRON. 

sometimes  required  to  mix  with  ores  containing  much 
limestone. 

^  l^rger  yl^d  from  the  same  furnace,  and  a  great 
economy  in  fuel,  are  effected  by  the  use  of  a  liotjdast* 
The  greater  heat  thus  produced  causes  the  iron  to  com- 
bine with  a  larger  percentage  of  foreign  substances, 
and  the  strength  of  the  cast  iron  is  thus  injured. 

Cast  iron,  for  all  purposes  requiring  greaTstrength, 
should  be  smelted  with  the  cold  blast. 

Pig  iron,  according  to  the  proportion  of  carbon 
which  it  contains,  is  divided  into  foundry  iron  and 
fwge  iron,  the  latter  being  adapted  only  to  conversion 
into  malleable  iron :  while  the  former,  containing  the 
largest  proportion  of  carbon,  can  be  used  either  for 
casting  or  for  making  bar  iron. 

There  are  many  varieties  of  cast  iron,  differing  from 
each  other  by  almost  insensible  shades ;  the  two  prin- 
cipal divisions  are  gray  and  white,  so  called  from  the 
color  of  the  fracture  when  recent.  Their  properties 
are  very  different. 

Gray  iron  is  softer  and  less  brittle  than  white  iron ; 
it  is  in  a  slight  degree  malleable  and  flexible,  and  is 
not  sonorous ;  it  can  be  easily  drilled  and  turned  in 
the  lathe,  and  does  not  resist  the  file.  It  has  a  bril- 
liant fracture,  of  a  gray,  or  sometimes  a  bluish-gray 
color  ;  the  color  is  lighter  as  the  grain  becomes  close!-, 
and  its  hardness  increases  at  the  same  time. 

White  iron  is  very  brittle  and  sonorous ;  it  resists 
the  file  and  the  chisel ;  the  fracture  presents  a  silvery 
appearance,  generally  fine  grained  and  compact. 

Mottled  iron  is  a  mixture  of  white  and  gray ;  it 
has  a  spotted  appearance. 

The  pig  metal  is  generally  known  in  our  market  as 


CAST   IKON.  197 

charcoal  cold  blast,  charcoal  hot  blast,  anthracite,  and 
coke  iron,  and  the  quality  is  decided  on  by  breaking 
the  pigs  and  examining  the  fractures.  A  medium- 
sized  grain,  bright  gray  color,  lively  aspect,  fracture 
sharp  to  the  touch,  and  a  close  compact  texture,  indi- 
cate a  good  quality  of  iron.  A  grain  either  very  large 
or  very  small,  a  dull,  earthy  aspect,  loose  texture,  dis- 
similar crystals  mixed  together,  indicate  an  inferior 
quality. 

Besides  these  general  divisions,  the  manufacturers 
distinguish  more  particularly  the  different  varieties  of 
pig  metal  by  numbers,  according  to  their  relative 
hardness. 

No.  1  is  the  softest  iron,  possessing  in  the  highest 
degree  the  qualities  described  as  belonging  to  gray 
iron ;  it  has  not  mifch  strength,  but  on  account  of  its 
fluidity  when  melted,  and  of  its  mixing  advantageously 
with  other  kinds  of  irons,  it  is  of  great  use  to  the 
founder,  and  commands  the  highest  price. 

No.  2  is  harder,  closer  grained,  and  stronger  than 
No.  1 ;  it  has  a  gray  color  and  considerable  lustre. 

No.  3  is  still  harder — its  color  is  gray,  but  inclining 
to  white ;  it  has  considerable  strength,  but  is  princi- 
pally used  for  mixing  with  other  kinds  of  iron. 

No.  4  is  bright  iron,  No.  5  mottled,  No.  6  white — 
which  is  unfit  for  general  use  by  itself. 

East  of  the  Alleghany  mountains,  the  anthracite 
hot-blast  iron  is  used  for  all  ordinary  purposes,  and 
west  of  the  Alleghanies  coke  hot-blast  iron  is  in  gen- 
eral use. 

Pig  metal  is  improved  by  being  remelted  in  an  air 
furnace.  All  cast  iron  expands  forcibly  at  the  moment 
of  becoming  solid,  and  again  contracts  in  cooling; 


198  MALLEABLE   IRON. 

gray  iron  expands  more  and  contracts  less  than  other 
iron. 

The  color  and  texture  of  cast  iron  depend  greatly 
on  the  size  of  the  casting  and  the  rapidity  of  cooling ; 
a  small  casting,  which  cools  quickly,  is  almost  always 
white,  and  the  surface  of  large  castings  partakes  more 
of  the  qualities  of  white  metal  than  the  interior.  Care 
should  always  be  taken  to  cool  them  as  equally  as  pos- 
sible, and  not  too  rapidly. 

West  of  the  Alleghanies,  where  bituminous  coal  is 
so  plentiful  and  cheap,  air  furnaces  are  in  general  use 
in  foundries,  and  the  castings  made  from  them  are 
superior  to  those  from  the  cupola  furnace,  as  was 
proved  at  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  by  many  experiments. 

MALLEABLE   IKON". 

The  manner  of  converting  iron  ore  into  malleable 
iron  has  undergone  many  changes  since  the  seventh 
descendant  from  Adam.  Tubal  Cain  was  an  "in- 
structor of  every  artificer  in  brass  and  iron."  It  is 
made  from  the  pig,  in  the  bloomery  fire,  or  in  the 
puddling  furnace — generally  the  latter.  The  process 
consists  in  melting  the  pig  metal  in  a  reverberatory 
furnace,  where  the  flame  is  made  to  act  directly  on 
the  metal,  keeping  it  exposed  to  a  great  heat,  and  con- 
stantly stirring  the  mass,  bringing  every  part  of  it 
evenly  under  the  action  of  the  flame,  until  it  loses  its 
remaining  carbon.  It  then  loses  its  fluidity,  and  is 
formed  into  a  puddler's  ball,  weighing  from  80  to  100 
pounds.  This  is  the  point  or  connecting  link  between 
cast  and  malleable  iron. 

The  operation  of  puddling  is  a  most  important  one, 


MALLEABLE    ITCON.  199 

as  the  quality  of  the  iron  depends  so  much  upon  the 
skill  with  which  it  is  conducted.  After  the  puddler's 
ball  has  been  formed,  it  is  passed  to  a  heavy  strong 
squeezer,  or  steam  hammer,  most  frequently  the  former. 
Its  object  is  to  press  out,  as  perfectly  as  possible,  the 
liquid  cinder  which  the  ball  still  contains;  it  also 
forms  the  ball  into  shape.  It  is  now  called  a  bloom, 
and  is  ready  to  be  rolled  or  hammered — while  yet  hot 
it  is  generally  passed  between  the  rolls  several  times, 
and  drawn  into  a  bar  about  five  inches  wide  and  three 
quarters  of  an  inch  thick;  this  is  called  muck  bar. 
The  next  thing  is  to  refine  it.  To  prepare  bars  for 
this  operation,  they  are  cut  by  a  strong  pair  of  shears 
into  such  lengths  as  are  best  adapted  to  the  size  of  bar 
or  sheet  required.  The  sheared  bars  are  then  piled 
one  on  the  other,  according  to  the  quantity  of  metal 
accessary  to  make  the  finished  piece.  They  are  then 
brought  to  a  welding  heat,  in  the  heating  furnace,  and 
passed  between  the  finishing  rolls  successively  until 
drawn  to  the  proper  dimensions.  For  heavy  plates, 
and  many  other  forms,  pieces  called  tops  and  bottoms 
are  first  rolled  some  three  by  two  feet  and  about  an 
inch  thick,  and  the  before  named  bars  piled — breaking 
joints — between  them.  Sometimes  these  tops  and 
bottoms  are  of  good  stock  and  the  pile  very  inferior ; 
the  result  is  a  poor  quality.  For  better  material,  the 
iron  is  double  refined  ;  i.  e.,  the  rough,  or  muck  bar,  as 
it  is  called,  being  cut  to  proper  lengths,  is  piled,  heated 
as  before,  rolled  into  bars,  and  again  piled,  heated,  and 
rolled  to  the  required  dimensions.  Another,  and  we 
consider  the  better  process,  is  to  hammer  the  heated 
pile  into  a  slab  of  say  18  by  12  inches  and  6  inches 
thick,  heat  this  slab,  rehammer  it,  then  roll  it  to-  de- 


200  MALLEABLE 

sired  dimensions.  By  reheating,  hammering  or  rolling, 
other  things  being  equal,  the  iron  is  improved  up  to 
some  five  or  six  workings,  after  which,  further  heating 
causes  deterioration. 

The  quality  depends  on  the  kind  of  pig  used, 
the  skill  of  the  puddler,  and  the  absence  of  deleteri- 
ous substances  in  the  furnace.  For  the  best  sheets, 
bars,  and  for  converting  into  steel,  charcoal  iron  is 
used  exclusively,  and  it  can  be  relied  upon  for 
strength  and  toughness  with  greater  confidence  thau 
any  other. 

Bloomery. — This  resembles  a  large  forge  fire,  and 
in  it  are  made  the  charcoal  blooms  from  which  the 
best  qualities  of  all  iron  and  steel  are  manufactured. 
The  pig  metal,  after  being  broken  into  pi.eces  of  the 
proper  size,  is  placed  before  a  strong  blast  directly  in 
contact  with  charcoal ;  as  the  metal  fuses  it  falls  into 
a  cavity  left  for  the  purpose  below  the  blast,  when  the 
bloomer  works  it  into  the  shape  of  a  ball,  which  he 
places  again  before  the  blast  surrounded  with  fresh 
charcoal;  after  repeating  this,  the  ball  is  ready  for 
and  put  under  the  hammer  and  hammered  into  a 
bloom.  The  bloom  is  then  removed  to  the  reverbera- 
tory  furnace,  and  heated  with  bituminous  coal,  to  a 
welding  heat,  then  again  hammered  into  a  slab,  or 
rolled  into  rough  bar.  If  the  former,  it  is  again  heated 
and  rolled  as  required.  If  the  latter,  it  is  cut,  piled, 
and  re-rolled  into  bar — then  treated  as  before  explained. 
Mange  boiler  plate  is  made  according  to  both  opera- 
tions, and  there  is  a  difference  of  opinion  among  iron 
masters  regarding  which  process  produces  the  best 
quality. 

Cold  STwrt  is  the  term  given  to  iron  that  will  not 


MALLEABLE    IRON.  201 

stand  working  cold,  bending,  twisting,  or  punching 
very  near  edges,  &c. 

Hot  Short  is  iron  that  will  not  work  advantageously 
hot,  but  is  strong  when  cold.  Both  kinds  are  suitable 
for  special  purposes,  but  for  machinery  neutral  iron  is 
the  kind  to  be  relied  upon.  By  neutral  is  meant  iron 
that  can  be  worked  either  cold  or  hot — at  all  ordinary 
temperatures. 

Forging. — Good  iron  is  often  injured  by  being  un- 
skilfully worked.  Care  should  be  taken  that  the  iron 
while  Ideating  is  not  exposed  to  the  air.  Iron  heated 
for  any  purpose,  especially  for  welding,  should  be 
heated  as  rapidly  as  possible,  in  order  to  expose  it  the 
least  possible  time  to  the  action4 of  the  air  and  coal ; 
for  this  purpose,  the  strongest  fuel  with  an  abundant 
steady  blast  is  necessary. 

Bessemer's  Patent  Process  for  making  Malleable 
Iron. — We  have  seen  that  the  principal  impurities  in 
cast  iron  consist  of  carbon,  sulphur,  phosphorus,  silicon, 
&c.  These  substances,  Mr.  Bessemer  asserts,  combine 
with  the  oxygen  of  the  atmosphere  at  high  tempera- 
tures ;  he  therefore  runs  the  metal  from  the  smelting 
furnace  into  a  close  vessel ;  when  this  vessel  is  about 
half  full,  numerous  small  jets  of  atmospheric  air  are 
forced  in  among  the  fluid  metal,  and  in  sufficient  quan- 
tities to  produce  a  vivid  combustion  among  the  par- 
ticles of  the  fluid  metal.  By  this  process  an  intense 
heat  is  generated  without  the  application  of  any  fuel, 
and  the  labor  and  expense  of  puddling  are  saved.  The 
process  has  been  progressing  in  England  for  several 
years,  and  at  this  date — 1862 — a  number  of  iron  mas- 
ters are  experimenting  with  it  in  this  country.  If  suc- 
cessful, a  cheaper  and  wider  field  will,  be  open  to  the 


202  CAST   STEEL. 

manufacturers  of  iron.  One  of  the  difficulties  Mr.  Bes- 
semer has  to  contend  with,  is  to  obtain  any  kind  of 
material  that  will  stand  the  intense  heat. 

PUDDLED    STEEL. 

If,  in  the  operation  of  puddling,  the  process  be 
stopped  at  a  particular  time,  determined  by  indications 
given  by  the  metal  to  an  experienced  eye,  an  iron  is 
obtained  of  greater  hardness  and  strength  than  ordi- 
nary iron,  to  which  the  name  of  semi-steel,  or  puddled 
steel,  has  been  applied.  Chemicals  are  also  used  in 
some  such  furnaces. 

STEEL. 

Steel  is  a  compound  of  iron  and  carbon,  in  which 
the  proportion  of  the  latter  is  from  five  to  one  per 
cent.,  and  even  less  in  some  kinds.  Steel  may  be  dis- 
tinguished from  iron  by  its  fine  grain,  and  its  suscepti- 
bility of  hardening  by  immersing  it,  when  hot,  in  cold 
water. 

There  are  many  varieties  of  steel,  the  principal  of 
which  are  blistered  steel,  shear  steel,  and  cast  steel. 

Blistered  Steel  \&  prepared  by  the  direct  combination 
of  iron  and  carbon.  The  process  is  to  take  the  best 
bars  and  plates  of  wrought  iron  and  expose  them  in  a 
converting  furnace,  for  seven  or  eight  days,  to  a  me- 
dium temperature,  in  contact  with  powdered  charcoal, 
so  as  to  totally  exclude  the  air.  The  bars,  on  being 
taken  out,  exhibit  in  the  fracture  a  uniform  crystalline 
appearance.  The  degree  of  carbonization  is  varied 
according  to  the  purpose  for  which  the  steel  is  in- 
tended. 


CAST   STEEL.  203 

Shear  Steel  is  generally  made  from  blistered  steel 
refined  by  piling  into  fagots,  which  are  brought  to  a 
welding  heat  in  a  reverberatory  furnace,  hammered 
and  rolled  again  into  bars ;  this  operation  is  repeated 
several  times  to  produce  the  finest  kind  of  shear  steel. 
The  name  is  derived  from  the  fact  that  this  variety  of 
steel  was  used  in  England  for  shears. 

Cast  Steel. — For  this  important  invention  we  are 
indebted  to  Benjamin  Huntsman,  of  the  village  of 
Handsworth,  near  Sheffield,  England,  who,  about  the 
year  1T40,  perfected  his  invention,  from  which  the 
civilized  world  has  derived  such  vast  and  varied  ad- 
vantages. It  is  made  by  breaking  blistered  steel  or 
cutting  bar  iron  into  small  pieces,  and  melting  it  in 
combination  with  a  small  quantity  of  charcoal  (when 
it  is  made  from  iron,  manganese  is  mixed  with  it)  in 
close  air-tight  crucibles,  from  which  it  is  poured  into 
iron  moulds ;  the  ingot  is  then  reduced  to  a  bar  by 
hammering  or  rolling,  as  described  under  the  head  of 
malleable  iron. 

Cast  steel  is  the  finest  kind  of  steel.  It  is  known 
by  a  very  fine,  even,  and  close  grain,  and  a  silvery  and 
homogeneous  fracture ;  it  is  very  brittle,  and  acquires 
extreme  hardness,  but  is  difficult  to  weld  without  the 
use  of  a  flux.  The  other  kinds  of  steel  have  a  similar 
appearance  to  cast  steel,  but  the  grain  is  coarser  and 
less  homogeneous;  they  are  softer,  less  brittle,  and 
weld  more  readily. 

Properties  of  Steel. — The  best  steel  possesses  the  fol- 
lowing characteristics :  Heated  to  redness  and  plunged 
into  cold  water,  it  becomes  hard  enough  to  scratch 
glass  and  to  resist  the  best  files ;  the  hardness  is  uni- 
form throughout  the  piece ;  after  being  tempered  it  is 


204  CAST   STEEL. 

not  easily  broken ;  it  welds  readily ;  it  does  not  crack 
or  split ;  it  bears  a  very  high  heat,  and  preserves  the 
capability  of  hardening  after  repeated  working ;  the 
grain  \sfine,  even,  and  homogeneous,  and  it  receives  a 
brilliant  polish. 

Hardening  and  Tempering. — On  these  operations 
the  quality  of  manufactured  steel  in  a  great  measure 
depends. 

Hardening  is  effected  by  heating  the  steel  to 
cherry  red  and  plunging  it  into  a  liquid,  generally  cold 
water;  the  degree  of  hardness  depends  on  the  heat 
and  rapidity  of  cooling. 

Tempering. — Steel  in  its  hardest  state  being  too 
brittle  for  most  purposes,  the  requisite  strength  and 
elasticity  are  obtained  by  tempering,  which  is  per- 
formed by  heating  the  hardened  steel  to  a  certain 
degree  and  cooling  it  quickly.  The  requisite  heat  is 
usually  ascertained  by  the  color  which  the  surface  of 
the  steel  assumes — a  straw  color  is  common  for  cold 
chisels  and  machinists'  tools. 

Case  Ha/rdening. — This  operation  consists  in  con- 
verting the  surface  of  wrought  iron  into  steel,  by  heat- 
ing the  iron  to  a  cherry  red,  in  a  close  vessel,  in  contact 
with  carbonaceous  materials,  and  then  plunging  it  into 
cold  water.  Bones,  leather,  hoofs,  and  horns  of  animals 
are  used  for  this  purpose,  after  having  been  burnt  or 
roasted,  and  pulverized.  Soot  is  also  frequently  used. 

To  Test  the  Quality  of  Boiler  Iron. — Bend  it  cold 
at  sharp  angles,  and  double  the  pieces  together  ;  heat 
it  cherry  red,  and  perform  the  same  operation,  and 
punch  holes  very  near  the  edges  of  the  sheets.  If  it 
stands  these  tests  without  cracking,  it  is  neutral  iron, 
and  of  the  best  quality. 


CAST  STEEL.  205 

To  Test  the  Quality  of  Bar  Iron. — Cut  a  notch  on 
one  side  with  a  cold  chisel,  then  bend  the  bar  over 
the  edge  of  an  anvil  at  sharp  angles.  If  the  fracture 
exhibits  long  silky  fibres,  of  a  leaden  gray  color,  co- 
hering together,  and  twisting  or  pulling  apart  before 
breaking,  it  denotes  tough,  soft  iron,  easy  to  work  and 
hard  to  break.  In  general,  a  short,  blackish  fibre  in- 
dicates iron  badly  refined.  A  very  fine  close  grain 
denotes  a  hard  steely  iron,  which  is  apt  to  be  cold 
short,  but  working  easily  when  heated,  and  making  a 
good  weld.  Numerous  cracks  on  the  edges  of  the  bar 
generally  indicate  a  hot  short  iron,  which  cracks  or 
breaks  when  punched  or  worked  at  a  red  heat,  and 
will  not  weld.  Blisters,  flaws,  and  cinder  holes  are 
caused  by  imperfect  welding  at  a  low  heat,  or  by  iron 
not  being  properly  worked,  and  do  not  always  indicate 
inferior  quality. 

To  Test  Iron  when  Hot. — Draw  a  piece  out,  bend 
and  twist  it,  split  it  and  turn  back  the  two  parts,  to 
see  if  the  split  extends  up  ;  finally,  weld  it,  and  observe 
if  cracks  or  flaws  weld  easily.  Good  iron  is  frequently 
injured  by  being  unskilfully  worked:  defects  caused 
by  this  may  be  in  part  remedied.  If,  for  example,  it 
has  been  injured  by  cold  hammering,  moderate  anneal- 
ing heat  will  restore  it. 

Steel. — To  test  steel,  break  a  few  bars,  taken  at 
random,  make  tools  of  them,  and  try  them  in  the 
severest  manner. 

For  further  information  on  the  subject  of  materials, 
we  refer  the  reader  to  an  excellent  work  called  "  Use- 
ful Metals  and  their  Alloys,"  by  Messrs.  Clay,  Aitken, 
Vospicket,  and  Fairbairn. 


206 


TENACITY    OF   MATERIALS. 


Tenacity  of  Materials. 


Cast  Steel 134,000  Ibs. 

'Swedish 72,000  "I   Experiments  by  Frank- 
Salisbury,  Conn 66,000  lin  Institute,  on  bara 

Bar-iron      Belletonte,  Pa 58,500    "      whose   cross  section 

English 56,000  J        was    about   one-fifth 

Pittsfield,  Mass 57,000   |       of  a  square  inch. 

:Pig  metal 15,000 

Good  common  castings 20,000       Experiments  of  Maj.  W. 

Specks  fromgun  heads j  gjjjj          ™e,  X^ 

Cast  Steel 128,000          on  pieces  whose  cross 

*— -*•> ««-> \  §s    rqS"  s.  M"ly ' 

Copper,  cast,  (Lake  Superior) 24,138  ^ 

Brass 18,000 

Com>er     $  Wrought 34,000 

Copper     j  Cagt 19)000 

Tin,  cast 4,800 

Zinc 3,500 

Platinum 56,000 

Silver 40,000 

Gold 30,000 

Lead. 1,800 

WOODS. 

Ash 15,800 

Mahogany 11,500 

Oak 11,600 

White  Pine 11,800 

Walnut 7,700 

In  general,  the  tenacity  of  metals  is  increased  by 
hammering  and  wiredrawing.  The  strength  of  Pitts- 
field  bar  iron,  given  in  the  above  table,  is  the  mean  of 
four  trials,  with  cylinders  1  inch  long  and  0.9  inch  di- 
ameter. They  were  extended  in  length,  before  frac- 
ture, to  1.4  in.,  and  they  were  reduced  in  diameter  to 
0.6  in.  in  the  middle. 

A  bar  of  wrought  iron  is  extended  about  one-hun- 
dredth part  of  its  length  for  every  ton  of  strain  on  a 
square  inch. 

Transverse  Strength. 

S  =  the  weight  in  pounds  required  to  break  a  beam 
1  in.  square  and  1  in.  long,  fixed  at  one  end  and  loaded 
at  the  other ;  b  the  breadth,  d  the  depth,  and  I  the 


RESISTANCE   TO   TORSION.  207 

length,  in  inches,  of  any  other  beam  of  the  same  mate- 
rial, and  W  the  weight  which  will  cause  it  to  break, 
neglecting  the  weight  of  the  beam  itself. 

1.  If  the  beam  is  supported  at  one  end,  and  loaded  at  the  other  : 


2.  If  the  beam  is  supported  at  one  end,  and  the  load  distributed  over  ita 
whole  length: 

W-2S- 

W  —  j&o     t 

3.  If  the  beam  is  supported  at  both  ends,  and  loaded  in  the  middle  : 


4.  If  the  beam  is  supported  at  botn  ends,  and  loaded  uniformly  over  ita 
whole  length  : 


6.  If  the  beam  is  supported  at  both  ends,  and  loaded  at  the  distance  m  from 
one  end : 

.      Ibd1 


^Resistance  to  Torsion. 

S  =  the  weight  in  pounds  required  to  break,  by 
twisting,  a  solid  cylinder,  1  inch  diameter  ;  the  weight 
acting  at  the  distance  of  1  inch  from  the  axis  of  the 
cylinder  ;  d,  the  diameter  in  inches  of  any  other  cylin- 
der of  the  same  material  ;  r,  the  distance  from  its  axis 
to  the  point  where  the  breaking  weight  W  is  applied  ; 
then: 


Results  of  Repeated  Heating  Bar  Iron. 

In  a  series  of  experiments,  with  regard  to  the  im- 
provements and  deterioration  which  result  from  oft- 
repeated  heating  and  laminating  of  bar  iron,  made  by 
William  Clay,  Esq.,  of  the  Mersey  steel  and  iron  works, 
Liverpool,  he  says  that,  taking  a  quantity  of  ordinary 
14 


208        EESULTS    OF   EEPEATED   HEATING    BAR   IKON. 


fibrous  puddled  iron,  and  reserving  samples  marked 
No.  1,  we  piled  a  portion  five  high,  heated  and  rolled 
the  remainder  into  bars  marked  No.  2,  again  reserving 
two  samples  from  the  centres  of  these  bars,  the  remain- 
der were  piled  as  before,  and  so  continued  until  a  por- 
tion of  the  iron  had  undergone  twelve  workings. 

"  The  following  table  shows  the  tensile  strain  which 
each  number  bore : 

No.  Pounds. 

1.  Puddled  bar 43,904 

2.  Re-heated 52,864 

59,585 

4. 

5. 

6. 

t. 

8. 

9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 


59,585 
57,344 
61,824 
59,585 
57,344 
57,344 
54,104 
51,968 
43,904 


"  It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the  quality,  of  the  iron 
increased  up  to  No.  6,  (the  slight  difference  of  No.  5 
may,  perhaps,  be  attributed  to  the  sample  being  slightly 
defective) ;  and  that  from  No.  6  the  descent  was  in  a 
similar  ratio  to  the  previous  increase." 

TENSILE  STRENGTH  OF  IRON  AND  STEEL  BARS  PER  SQUARE  INCH. 


Description  of  Iron  and  Steel. 

Tensile  Strength. 

Authority. 

T?       '       T 

62  644 

English  Rolled  Iron 

56  532 

56  103 

American  Hammered  

53,913 

Krupp's  Cast  Steel,  average  of  3  samples... 

111,707 
142  222 

Min.  of  War,  Berlin. 

Mallett 

88  657 

do 

«                   u 

134  256 

150  000 

Shear  Steel  

124  400 

Blister  "     '.. 

133,152 

Mersey  Steel  and  Iron  Co.  Puddled  steel, 
highest... 

173  817 

160  832 

Average  of  three  samples  tested  at  the  Liv- 
erpool Corporation  testing  machine  

1  1  2,000 

STRENGTH    OF   JOINTS -OF   BOILER    PLATES.  209 


On   the,  strength  of  the  joints  of  single  and  double  riveted 
boiler  plates,  by  William  Fairbairn,  Esq.,  F.  It.  S. 

On  comparing  the  strength  of  plates  with  their 
riveted  joints,  it  will  be  necessary  to  examine  the  sec- 
tional areas  taken  in  a  line  through  the  rivet-holes  with 
the  section  of  the  plates  themselves.  It  is  perfectly 
obvious,  that  in  perforating  a  line  of  holes  along  the 
edge  of  a  plate,  we  must  reduce  its  strength :  it  is  also 
clear  that  the  plate  so  perforated  will  be  to  the  plate 
itself,  nearly  as  the  areas  of  their  respective  sections, 
with  a  small  deduction  for  the  irregularities  of  the 
pressure  of  the  rivets  upon  the  plate ;  or,  in  other 
words,  the  joint  will  be  reduced  in  strength  somewhat 
more  than  in  the  ratio  of  its  section  through  that  line 
to  the  solid  section  of  the  plate.  It  is  evident  that  the 
rivets  cannot  add  to  the  strength  of  the  plates,  their  ob- 
ject being  to  keep  the  two  surfaces  of  the  lap  in  contact. 

When  this  great  deterioration  of  strength  at  the 
joint  is  taken  into  account,  it  cannot  but  be  of  the 
greatest  importance  that  in  structures  subjected  to  such 
violent  strains  as  boilers  and  ships,  the  strongest 
method  of  riveting  should  be  adopted.  To  ascertain 
this,  a  long  series  of  experiments  j\*  /j 
were  undertaken  by  Mr.  Fairbairn, 
some  of  the  results  of  which  will 
be  of  interest  here.  The  joint  or- 
dinarily employed  in  ship  building 
is  the  lap  joint,  shown  in  Figs.  1 
and  2.  The  plates  to  be  united 
are  made  to  overlap,  and  the  rivets 
are  passed  through  them,  no  cov- 
ering-plates being  required,  except 
at  the  ends  of  the  plate,  where  they  butt  against  each 


210          STRENGTH   OF   JOINTS    OF   BOILER   PLATES. 

other.  It  is  also  a  common  practice  to  countersink  the 
rivet-heads  on  the  exterior  of  the  vessel,  that  the  hull 
may  present  a  smooth  surface  for  her  passage  through 
the  water.  This  system  of  riveting  is  only  used  when 
smooth  surfaces  are  required;  under  other  circum- 
stances, their  introduction  would  not  be  desirable,  as 
they  do  not  add  to  the  strength  of  the  joint,  but,  to  a 
certain  extent,  reduce  it.  There  are  two  kinds  of  lap- 
joints,  those  said  to  be  single-riveted  (Fig.  1),  and  those 
which  are  double-riveted  (Fig.  2).  At  first,  the  former 
were  almost  universally  employed,  but  the  greater 
strength  of  the  latter  has  since  led  to  their  general 
adoption  in  the  larger  descriptions  of  vessels.  The  rea- 
son of  the  superiority  is  evident.  A  riveted  joint  gives 
way  either  by  shearing  off  the  rivets  in  the  middle  of 
their  length,  or  by  tearing  through  one  of  the  plates 
in  the  line  of  the  rivets.  In  a  perfect  joint,  the  riveta 
should  be  on  the  point  of  shearing  just  as  the  plates 
were  about  to  tear;  but  in  practice,  the  rivets  are 
usually  made  slightly  too  strong.  Hence,  it  is  an  estab- 
lished rule,  to  employ  a  certain  number  of  rivets  per 
lineal  foot.  If  these  are  placed  in  a  single  row,  the 
rivet-holes  so  nearly  approach  each  other,  that  the 
strength  of  the  plates  is  much  reduced ;  but  if  they 
are  arranged  in  two  lines,  a  greater  number  may  be 
used,  and  yet  more  space  left  between  the  holes,  and 
greater  strength  and  stiffness  imparted  to  the  plates  at 
the  joint. 

The  experiments  of  Mr.  Fairbairn  and  others  have 
established  the  following  relative  strengths  as  the 
value  of  plates  with  their  riveted  joints : 

Taking  the  strength  of  the  plate  at 100 

The  strength  of  the  double-riveted  joint  would  then  be 70 

And  the  strength  of  the  single-riveted  joint 56 


MOTION.  211 


THE   ELEMENTS   OF   MACHINEKY. 

IN  consequence  of  having  found  many  young  en- 
gineers unacquainted  with  the  principles  of  mechani- 
cal powers,  we  have  thought  best  to  devote  a  short 
space  to  the  subject,  prefacing  it  with  the  description 
of  motion,  and  application  of  power,  by  David  A. 
Wells,  A.  M. 

Motion. 

Motion  is  the  act  of  changing  place.  It  is  absolute 
or  relative.  Absolute  motion  is  a  change  of  position 
in  space,  considered  without  reference  to  any  other 
body.  Relative  motion  is  motion  considered  in  rela- 
tion to  some  other  body,  which  is  either  in  motion  or 
at  rest. 

When  a  body  commences  to  move  from  a  state 
of  rest,  there  must  be  some  force  to  cause  its  motion, 
and  this  force  is  generally  termed  "  Power."  On  the 
contrary,  a  force  acting  to  retard  a  moving  body,  de- 
stroy its  motion,  or  drive  it  in  a  contrary  direction, 
is  termed  "  Resistance."  The  chief  causes  which  tend 
to  retard  or  destroy  the  motion  of  a  body  are  gravi- 
tation, friction,  and  resistance  of  the  air. 

The  speed, .  or  rate,  at  which  a  body  moves,  is 
termed  velocity.  The  momentum  of  a  body  is  its 
quantity  of  motion,  and  this  expresses  the  force  with 
which  one  body  in  motion  would  strike  against 
another.  This  momentum,  or  force,  which  a  moving 
body  exerts,  is  estimated  by  multiplying  its  weight 
by  its  velocity.  Thus  a  body  weighing  20  Ibs.,  and 
moving  with  a  velocity  of  200  feet  per  second,  will 
have  a  momentum  of  20  X  200  =  4000. 


212  APPLICATION    OF   POWER. 

Action  and  Reaction. 

When  a  body  communicates  motion  to  another 
body,  it  loses  as  much  of  its  own  momentum,  or  force, 
as  it  gives  to  the  other  body.  The  term  Action  is 
applied  to  designate  the  power  which  a  body  in  mo- 
tion has  to  impart  motion,  or  force,  to  another  body ; 
and  the  term  Reaction  to  express  the  power  which 
the  body  acted  upon  has  of  depriving  the  acting  body 
of  its  force  or  motion.  There  is  no  motion,  or  action 
without  a  corresponding  and  opposite  action  of  equal 
amount ;  or,  in  other  words,  action  and  reaction  are 
always  equal  and  opposed  to  each  other. 

Application  of  Power. 

The  principal  agents  from  whence  we  obtain 
power  for  practical  purposes,  are  men  and  animals, 
water,  wind,  steam,  and  gunpowder. 

When  work  is  performed  by  any  agent,  there  is 
always  a  certain  weight  moved  over  a  certain  space, 
or  resistance  overcome ;  the  amount  of  work  per- 
formed, therefore,  will  depend  on  the  weight,  or  re- 
sistance that  is  moved,  and  the  space  over  which  it  is 
moved.  For  comparing  different  quantities  of  work 
done  by  any  force,  it  is  necessary  to  have  some  stand- 
ard ;  and  this  standard  is  the  power,  or  labor,  ex- 
pended in  raising  a  pound  weight  one  foot  high,  in 
opposition  to  gravity. 

A  machine  is  an  instrument,  or  apparatus,  adapted 
to  receive,  distribute,  and  apply  motion  derived  from 
some  external  force  in  such  a  way  as  to  produce  a 
desired  result ;  but  it  cannot,  under  any  conditions, 
create  power,  or  increase  the  quantity  of  power  or 
force  applied  to  it.  Perpetual  motion,  or  the  con- 
struction of  machines  which  shall  produce  power 
sufficient  to  keep  themselves  in  motion  continually,  is, 


APPLICATION    OF   POWER.  213 

therefore,  an  impossibility,  since  no  combination  of  ma- 
chinery can  create,  or  increase,  the  quantity  of  power 
applied,  or  even  preserve  it  without  diminution. 

The  great  general  advantage  that  we  obtain  from 
machinery  is,  that  it  enables  us  to  exchange  time  and 
space  for  power.  Thus,  if  a  man  could  raise  to  a  cer- 
tain height  200  pounds  in  one  minute,  with  the 
utmost  exertion  of  his  strength,  no  arrangement  of 
machinery  could  enable  him  unaided  to  raise  2000 
pounds  in  the  same  time.  If  he  desired  to  elevate 
this  weight,  he  would  be  obliged  to  divide  it  into  ten 
equal  parts,  and  raise  each  part  separately,  consuming 
ten  times  the  time  required  for  lifting  200  pounds. 
The  application  of  machinery  would  enable  him  to 
raise  the  whole  mass  at  once,  but  would  not  decrease 
the  time  occupied  in  doing  it,  which  would  still  be 
ten  minutes. 

The  power  will  overcome  the  resistance  of  the 
weight,  and  motion  will  take  place  in  a  machine, 
when  the  product  arising  from  the  power  multiplied 
by  the  space  through  which  it  moves  in  a  vertical 
direction,  is  greater  than  the  product  arising  from 
the  weight  multiplied  by  the  space  through  which  it 
moves  in  a  vertical  direction.  Thus  if  a  small  power 
acts  against  a  great  resistance,  the  motion  of  the  lat- 
ter will  be  just  as  much  slower  than  that  of  the 
power,  as  the  resistance  or  weight  is  greater  than  the 
power,  or  if  one  pound  be  required  to  overcome  the 
resistance  of  two  pounds,  the  one  pound  must  move 
over  two  feet  in  the  same  time  that  the  resistance, 
two  pounds,  requires  to  move  over  one. 

All  machines,  no  matter  how  complex  and  intri- 
cate their  construction,  may  be  reduced  to  one  or 
more  of  six  simple  machines,  or  elements,  which  we 
call  the 


214  THE   LEVER. 

Mechanical  Powers. 

The  simple  machines,  six  in  number,  are  usually 
denominated  the  lever,  inclined  plane,  wheel  and 
axle,  pulley,  screw,  and  wedge. 

The  wheel  and  axle  is,  however,  a  revolving  lever, 
the  screw  a  revolving  inclined  plane,  and  the  wedge 
a  double  inclined  plane,  thus  reducing  them  to  three 
in  number,  viz. :  lever,  inclined  plane,  and  pulley. 

All  these  machines  act  on  the  same  fundamental 
principle  of  virtual  velocities ;  accordingly,  the  weight 
multiplied  into  the  space  it  moves  through  is  equal  to 
the  power  multiplied  into  tJie  space  it  'moves  through. 
This  is  the  general  law  which  determines  the  equi- 
librium of  all  machines ;  and  keeping  this  principle 
in  mind,  there  will  be  no  difficulty  in  solving  any  of 
the  propositions  appertaining  to  the  simple  machines. 

In  all  machines,  a  portion  of  the  effect  is  lost  in 
overcoming  the  friction  of  the  working  parts;  but, 
in  making  calculations  upon  them,  it  is  made  first  as 
though  no  friction  existed,  a  deduction  being  after- 
wards made.  And  so  also  we  have  to  assume  a  per- 
fection in  the  machine  itself  which  does  not  exist; 
that  is  to  say,  the  inclined  plane,  screw,  wedge,  <fec., 
to  be  a  perfectly  smooth  hard  inflexible  substance, 
and  the  rope  of  the  pulley,  and  wheel  and  axle,  to  be 
perfectly  flexible  and  non-elastic,  conditions,  for  which 
allowance  has  to  be  made  after  the  calculation  is 
completed. 

Lever. — Of  the  lever  there  are  three  orders,  as 
shown  respectively  by  the  figures  1,  2,  3. 


THE   LEVEK. 


215 


.   2 


Fig.  3 


A 

JF 


W  =  weight,  P  =  power,  F  =  fulcrum. 

EXAMPLE  1.— Given  the  Weight  W  =  1000  Ibs., 
required  the  power  P,  the  lengths  of  the  arms  re- 
spectively as  marked  in  the  figures  ? 

Am.  l.—P  x  3  =  1000  X  1 
3P  =  1000 
P  =  333^  Ibs. 

ANS.  2.— P  X  4  —  1000  X  1 
4P  =  1000 
P  =  250  Ibs. 

Am  3.— P  x  1  =  1000  x  4 
P  =  4000  Ibs. 

EXAMPLE  2. — Given  a  compound  lever  with  lengths 


Tig-.  4, 


and  weight  as  marked  in  fig.  4,  required  the  power  P. 


216  THE   LEVEE. 

p  X  16  =  1000  X  4 
IQp  —  4000 

p  —  250  Ibs.  =  weight   required  at 
p,  supposing  there  to  be  but  one  lever — therefore 

P  x  10  =  250  X  2 
10P  =  500 

P  =.  50  Ibs. 
Or, 

1000  x4x2=r:PxlOxl6 
8000  =  160P 
P=  50 

EXAMPLE  3. — Given,  as  per  figure  5,  a  safety  valve 


-=     3       X 

Tig.  5. 

20                           > 

A      ^| 

6-                J 

100  sqr.  ins.  area 

20  Ibs.  per  sq.  in.  pressure 
2000  Ibs.  total  pressure. 

100  sq.  ins.  area,  subject  to  a  pressure  per  square  inch 
above  the  atmosphere  of  20  Ibs.,  lengths  of  the  long 
and  short  arms  of  the  lever  as  shown  in  the  figure, 
required  the  weight  W  to  balance  the  pressure  on  the 
valve  ? 

W  x  25  =  100  X  20  X  5 
25W  =  10000 
W  =  400  Ibs. 

EXAMPLE  4. — Suppose,  in  example  3,  the  valve  and 
stem  should  weigh  20  Ibs.,  and  the  lever,  which  is 
uniform  throughout  its  length,  weigh  2  5  Ibs.,  what 
would  be  the  weight  W,  in  that  case,  to  balance  the 
same  pressure  of  steam  ? 

The  valve  and  stem  being  5  inches  from  the  ful- 
crum, act  with  a  leverage  of  5  inches,  but  the  lever 
being  uniform,  its  action  is  the  same  as  though  the 


INCLINED    PLANE. 


217 


whole  weight  was  concentrated  at  x  (the  centre  of 
gravity)  half  way  of  its  length.     Wherefore 

W  X  25  +  20  X  5  +  25  X  12.5  =  100  X  20  X  5 
25W  -f  100  +  312.5  =  10000 

25 W  =  10000 -412.5 

W  =  383.5  Ibs.  the  re- 
quired weight. 

Practically,  the  pressure  a  safety  valve  lever  ex- 
erts on  the  valve  can  be  ascertained  by  fixing  it  in  its 
place,  and  attaching  a  spring  balance  to  the  pin  hole 
immediately  over  the  valve.  If  the  valve  and  weight 
be  also  attached,  the  balance  will  indicate  the  total 
pressure  which  tends  to  keep  the  valve  in  its  seat, 
which  pressure  being  divided  by  the  number  of  square 
inches  in  the  valve,  will  give  the  pressure  per  square 
inch  at  which  steam  will  commence  to  blow  off. 

Inclined  Plane. 
Ex.  1.— Weight  W  500  Ibs., 
length,  and  height  of  the  plane, 
as  per  figure  6,  20  and  9  ins. 
respectively,  required  the  pow- 
er P? 

Considering  the  weight  W  to  be  started  at  the 
base  of  the  plane  and  rolled  up  to  the  top,  it  will 
travel  vertically  the  height  of  the  plane,  (9  inches), 
while  the  power,  P,  will  descend  a  distance  equal  to 
the  length  of  the  plane  (20  ins.),  therefore,  according 
to  the  principle  of  virtual  velocities, 

P  X  20  =  500  X  9 
20P  =  4500 
P  =  225  Ibs. 

Q,  Ex.  2. — Length  and 
height  of  the  plane  as 
per  fig.  7,  weight  500 
pounds,  required  the 


Tig.  6. 


218 


INCLINED   PLANE. 


power  P  applied  in  a  line  with  the  base  of  the 
plane  ? 

In  this  case,  when  the  weight  will  have  risen  from 
the  base  to  the  top  of  the  plane,  9  ins.,  the  distance 
descended  by  P  will  manifestly  not  be  equal  to  the 
length  but  to  the  base.  Wherefore 

P  X   VW-H*  =  500  X  9 
1Y.86P  =  4500 

P  =  251.96  -  Ibs. 

In  order  to  establish  Equilibrium  between  the 
weight  and  power,  this  calculation  is  also  applicable 

when  the  power  is 
applied  in  the  di- 
rectipn  of  the  base 
as  shown  in  dots, 
figure  7. 

If  the  power  be 
applied  at  an  angle 
with  the  plane,  as 
C  A,  figure  8,  in 
order  to  ascertain  the  proportion  of  weight  to  the 
power,  to  establish  equilibrium,  we  proceed  thus : 
Draw  CD,  the  vertical  of  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the 
weight,  of  any  convenient  length ;  CE,  at  right  angles 
to  BE,  and  DE  parallel  to  AC.  CD  can  represent 
the  length  of  the  plane,  and  DE  the  height.  Where- 
fore 

Weight  x  DE  =  Power  x  CD 
Power  =  Weight  x  DE 

"CD~~ 

Geometrically,  the  angles  B&C  and  CDE,  from 
the  construction  of  the  figure,  can  be  demonstrated 
to  be  equal,  and  also  ECD,  and  BEG ;  from  which, 
knowing  the  lengths  of  two  legs  of  the  triangle  BEG, 


WHEEL   AND    AXLE. 


219 


and  the  angle  G,  to  be  a  right  angle,  the  lengths  of 
the  lines  CD  ED  can  be  determined. 

Wheel  and  Axle. — In  the  wheel  and  axle,  when 
the  power  is  applied  tangentially  to  the  wheel, 

W  x  radius  of  axle  =  P  x  radius  of  wheel 
"W  X  diameter  of  axle  =  P  x  diameter  of  wheel 
.W  X  circumference  of  axle  =  P  x  circum.  of  wheel. 


When  the  power  is  not  applied 
tangentially  to  the  wheel,  but  in  the 
direction  shown  in  fig.  9,  the  length 
of  the  line  ab  at  right  angles  to  the 
power  will  give  the  leverage  of  the 
power, — hence 

W  X  radius  of  axle  =  P  x  oh- 


Tig.  9, 


Pulley. — If  a  cord  be  pulled  at  one  end  the  ten- 
sion throughout  its  whole  length  must  be  alike. 
Taking  figure  10,  and  supposing  the  power  to  be  1, 
the  tension  throughout  the  entire 
length  of  the  cord  will  be  1 ,  but 
as  there  are  two  parts  of  the  cord 
supporting  the  lower  block,  the 
weight  must  be  2.  The  pressure 
on  the  fulcrum  or  support  must 
be  always  equal  to  the  weight, 
plus  the  power.  If  there  be 
more  than  one  support,  the  sum 
of  the  pressures  on  them  will  be 
equal  to  the  sum  of  the  weight 
and  power.  Or,  in  figure  10, 
according  to  the  principle  of  virtual  velocities,  the 
weight  is  double  the  power,  because  the  power  must 
descend  2  feet  for  every  foot  ascent  of  the  weight. 


.  10 


220 


THK   PULLEY. 


The  numbers  above  the  top  blocks  in  all  the  ex- 
amples of  pulleys  here  shown  represent  the  pressure 
on  the  supports. 

In  fig.  11,  the  power  and  weight  are  as  1  to  8,  because 
the  power  supports  4  weights,  each  one  double  its  size. 


JEig.il 

it 


In  fig.  12  the  tension 
on  the  1st  cord  is  1 ;  on 
the  2d  2  ;  3d  4 ;  4th  8  ; 
5th  16 ;  and  as  there  are 
2  parts  of  the  cord  hav- 
ing a  tension  of  16,  the 
weight  to  establish  equi- 
librium, must  be  32. 

In  fig;  13  the  weight 
to  the  power  is  as  3  to 
1,  there  being  3  parts 
of  the  cord  having  a 
tension  of  1  supporting 
the  weight. 


Fig:  13. 


THE   PULLEY 


221 


In  fig.  14  the  power 
to  the  weight  is  as  1 
to  12,  the  power  being 
multiplied  four  times 
by  the  application  of 
the  second  set  of  pul- 
leys, or  luff-tackles, 
as  they  are  technically 
termed. 

In  fig.  15  the  power 
is  to  the  weight  as 
1  to  12,  the  tension 
throughout  the  first 
cord  being  1 ;  the  sec- 
ond cord  2  ;  third  5, 
and  as  there  are  two 
parts  of  the  cord  hav- 
ing a  tension  of  5,  and 
one  part  of  the  cord 
having  a  tension  of  2, 
supporting  the  weight, 
if  all  the  cords  be 
supposed  parallel,  the 
weight  must  be  the 
sum  of  these,  or  12. 

In  fig.  16  the  power 
to  the  weight  is  as  1 
to  4. 

In  figure  17,  where 
the  power  is  applied 
at  an  angle,  we  ascer- 
tain the  proportion  of 
the  weight  and  power 
thus:  Draw  AD,  of 
any  convenient  length^ 
and  from  the  point  A 
draw  AB  parallel  to 


222 


THE   PULLEY. 


Cc  and  AC  parallel  to  B£.  The 
power  and  weight  will  be  re- 
spectively as  the  lengths  of  the 
lines  DC  or  DB  and  AD. 


Tig.  16 


From  which  it  will  be  seen  that  the  greater  the 
angle  CDB  the  longer  will  be  the  line  DC  or  DB,  and 
hence  the  greater  the  power.  So  that  the  weight  of  the 
line  itself  will  be  sufficient  to  prevent  any  powei 
whatever  from  drawing  it  mathematically  straight. 


QUESTION. — In  figure  18,  two  blocks  of  granite, 
joined  together  as  shown,  are  laid  upon  a  horizontal 
plane ;  required  their  relative  sizes  in  order  that  they 
may  commence  at  the  same  time  to  move,  and  con- 
tinue to  move  with  equal  velocity  ? 

ANS. — 2  to  1,  because  the  larger  block  is  supported 
by  two  parts  ol  the  cord,  and  has  in  consequence, 
double  the  force  exerted  upon  it  of  the  smaller  block. 


THE   SCREW. 


223 


Screw. — In  the  screw, 
like  all  other  simple  ma- 
chines the  power  x  space 
moved  through  =  weight 
X  space  moved  through. 
Ex. — Length  of  lever 
20  ins.,  pitch  of  screw  ± 
inch,  weight  500  Ibs.,  re. 
quired  the  power  P  at 
the  end  of  the  lever  ? 
Am  Px20x  2x3.1416 

=  500  X  T 
125.664P  =  250 

P  =  1.989  Ibs. 


The  screw  is  simply  a 
revolving  inclined  plane, 
the  power  being  applied 
parallel  to  the  base  of 
the  plane,  which  is  repre- 
sented by  the  circumfer- 
ence described  by  P,  and 
the  height  of  the  plane 
by  the  pitch  of  the  screw. 

Fig.  20  is  a  compound 
screw.  The  upper  screw 
AA  is  fitted  to  the  thread 
in  the  nut  B  which  re- 
mains fixed.  The  cylin- 
der AA  being  hollow  has 
another  screw  C,  of  a  finer 
thread,  fitting  into  it. 
Tfce  nut  D  is  fixed,,  al- 
3owing  C  to  slide  up  and 
down  within  it,  without 


224 


THE   "WEDGE. 


turning.  By  this  arrangement  it  will  be  seen,  that 
when  the  screw  AA  is  turned  once  round,  the  distance 
ascended  by  the  weight  will  not  be  equal  to  the  pitch 
of  AA,  but  the  difference  between  the  pitch  of  AA 
andC. 

EXAMPLE. — Pitch  of  AA  £  inch,  of  C  T7T  inch, 
weight  16000  Ibs.,  required  the  power  P,  applied  20 
inches  from  the  centre  ? 

Am— P  X  20  X  2  X  3.1416  =  16000  X  T8T  — Vr 
125.664P  =  1000 

P=T.9571bs. 

In  order  to  multiply  the  power  the  same  number 
of  times  with  a  single  screw,  the  pitch  would  have  to 
be  -Jg-  inch,  which  would  render  the  thread  too  weak 
to  withstand  a  heavy  pressure. 

Wedge.— LetWW, 
fig.  21,  be  two  weights 
of  1000  Ibs.  each,  rest- 
ing upon  a  horizontal 

21.  Plane?  required  the 
power  to  be  applied 
at  P,  to  the  wedge, 
having  the  dimensions 
shown  in  the  figure  to 
to  separate  them  ? 

P  X  20  =  1000  X  2 
20P  =  2000 
P  =  100  Ibs. 

Because,  when  the  power  P  has  descended  to  the 
point  A,  the  weights  have  been  separated  2  inches 
while  the  power  has  travelled  20  inches,  the  length 
of  the  wedge. 


GRAVITY.  225 

Centre  of  Gravity. 

The  centre  of  gravity  of  a  cone  from  the  vertex 
equals  \  the  axis. 

In  a  paraboloid,  the  distance  from  vertex  equals  -f 
the  axis. 

In  a  parabolic  space,  equals  f  the  axis  from  the 
vertex. 

In  a  triangle,  equals  -f  the  axis  from  the  vertex. 

Centre  of  Pressure. 

The  centre  of  pressure  of  a  parallelogram,  when 
the  upper  surface  is  level  with  the  water,  =  ±  from  the 
bottom  ;  of  a  right-angled  triangle  with 
the  base  down  =  ^  from  the  bottom, 
measured  on  the  perpendicular  line 
B  C  ;  with  the  base  up  =  £  B  C. — See 
Hanris  Mechanics. 


Semi-parabolic  plane. 

FORMULA : 

m  —  centre  of  pressure, 
b  m  =   |  of  a  c, 
m  n  =  T5T  of  a  d. 

Gravity. 

The  spaces  described  by  a  body  acted  upon  freely 
by  gravity  are  as  the  squares  of  the  times  ;  i.  e.,  a  body 
falling  2  seconds,  will  describe  4  times  the  distance  of 


226  GKAVITY. 

a  body  falling  one  second.  Hence,  in  order  to  ascer- 
tain the  distance  fallen  by  a  body,  it  is  only  necessary 
to  multiply  the  square  of  the  number  of  seconds  by 
the  distance  fallen  in  the  first  second  ;  the  product  will 
be  the  total  distance  fallen. 

All  bodies  fall  with  the  same  velocity  in  vacuo, 
namely,  16.08  feet  in  the  first  second,  having  a  velocity 
of  32.166  feet  at  the  end  of  the  second.  Where  the 
atmosphere  is  interposed,  the  velocity  will  be  some- 
what less,  say  for  heavy  bodies,  such  as  the  metals,  16 
feet  for  the  first  second. 

EXAMPLE. — Which  will  strike  with  the  greater 
effect,  a  weight  of  200  Ibs.,  falling  through  144  ft.,  or 
100  Ibs.  falling  through  256  feet  ? 

The  velocity  of  a  body  at  the  end  of  a  fall  is  equal 
to  the  number  of  seconds  it  is  falling,  multiplied  into 
(32  feet)  the  velocity  at  the  end  of  the  first  second, 
and  the  momentum  of  a  body  is  equal  to  the  weight 
multiplied  into  the  velocity.  We  have,  then,  first  to 
find  the  velocity,  and  afterwards  the  momentum. 

v^  16  :  1  :  :  V 144  :  3  seconds  time  of  falling  of  200  Ib. 
v/l6:  1::  ^256:4  "  "  "  100  Ib. 

32  x  3     —       96  ft.  per  second  velocity  at  end  of  fall 

of  200  Ib.  weight. 
32  X  4     =     128  ft.  per  second  velocity  at  end  of  fall 

of  100  Ib.  weight. 

96x200=19200=  momentum  of  the  200  Ib.  weight. 
128x100=12800=  momentum  of  the  100  Ib.  weight. 
6400=  difference,  which  is  33^-  per  cent. 
of  the  larger  number. 


DISPLACEMENT   OF   FLUIDS.  227 

Centre  of  Gravity  of  Several  Bodies  taken  together. 

Suppose  there  be  several  weights  placed  as  follows 
in  the  same  plane,  required  the  centre  of  gravity  of 
them  all  taken  together  ? 

Cylinder.  Air-pump.  Shaft.  Boilers. 

Tone.  Tons.  Tons.  Tons. 

5  2  10  30 

<       8ft.        x      10ft     X      20ft.    >         a 

Assume  a  point  («),  at  any  distance  (say  2  feet) 
from  either  of  the  extreme  weights,  and  multiply  each 
weight  separately  by  its  distance  from  this  point ;  the 
sum  of  these  products,  divided  by  the  sum  of  the 
weights,  will  be  the  distance  of  the  centre  of  gravity 
from  the  assumed  point.  Thus : 

30  X  2    =    60 
10  X  22  =  220 

2  x  32  =    64 

5  x  40  =  200 

47  )  544  (11.57  ft.  =  centre  of 

gravity  from  the  point  #,  or  9.57  feet  from  the  boilers 
towards  the  shaft. 

Displacement  of  Fluids. 

Solid  bodies  immersed  in  fluids  will  displace  an 
amount  of  the  fluid  equal  to  their  own  weight.  If  the 
specific  gravity  of  the  body  be  greater  than  that  of 
the  fluid,  it  will  sink ;  otherwise  it  will  float. 

EXAMPLE. — Required  the  distance  a  cube  of  cherry, 
one  foot  high,  will  sink  in  fresh  water  ? 

The  specific  gravities  of  fresh  water  and  cherry  are 
relatively  as  1.00  to  .606 ;  the  cherry  will  therefore 
sink  .606  feet. 


228      FORCE,  TEMPERATURE,  AND  VOLUME  OF  STEAM. 


Table  of  the  Elastic  Force,  Temperature,  and  Volume  of  Steam,  from  a 
Temperature  of  80°  to  387.3°,  and  from  a  Pressure  of  one  to  410  Inches 
of  Mercury. 


Elastic  force  in 

Tempera- 
ture. 

Volume. 

Elastic  force  in 

Tempera- 
ture. 

Volume. 

inches  of 
mercury. 

ounds  per 
sq.  inch.  | 

nches  of 
mercury. 

munds  per 
sq.  inch. 

1 

.49 

80 

41031 

53.04 

26 

243.3 

1007 

1.17 

.573 

85 

35393 

55.08 

27 

245.5 

973 

1.36 

.666 

90 

30425 

57.12 

28 

247.6 

941 

1.58 

.774 

95 

26686 

59.16 

29 

249.6 

911 

1.86 

.911 

100 

22873 

61.2 

30 

251.6 

883 

2.04 

1 

103 

20958 

63.24 

31 

253.6 

857 

2.18 

1.068 

105 

19693 

65.28 

32 

255.5 

833 

2.53 

1.24 

110 

16667 

67.32 

33 

257.3 

810 

2.92 

1.431 

115 

14942 

69.36 

34 

259.1 

788 

3.33 

1.632 

120 

13215 

71.4 

35 

260.9 

767 

8.79 

1.857 

125 

11723 

73.44 

36 

262.6 

748 

4.34 

2.129 

130 

10328 

75.48 

37 

264.3 

729 

5 

2.45 

135 

9036 

77.52 

38 

265.9 

712 

5.74 

2.813 

140 

7938 

79.56 

39 

267.5 

695 

6.53 

3.1 

145 

7040 

81.6 

40 

269.1 

679 

7.42 

3.636 

150 

6243 

83.64 

41 

270.6 

664 

8.4 

4.116 

155 

5559 

85.68 

42 

272.1 

649 

9.46 

4.635 

160 

4976 

87.72 

43 

273.6 

635 

10.68 

5.23 

165 

4443 

89.76 

44 

275 

622 

12.13 

5.94 

170 

3943 

91.8 

45 

276.4 

610 

13.62 

6.67 

175 

3838 

93.84 

46 

277.8 

598  - 

15.15 

7.42 

180 

3208 

95.88 

47 

279.2 

586 

17 

8.33 

185 

2879 

97.92 

48 

280.5 

573 

19 

9.31 

190 

2595 

99.96 

49 

281.9 

564 

21.22 

10.4 

195 

2342 

102 

50 

283.2 

654 

23.64 

11.58 

200 

2118 

104.04 

51 

284.4 

544 

26.13 

12.7 

205 

1932 

106.08 

52 

285.7 

534 

28.84 

14.13 

210 

1763 

108.12 

53 

286.9 

525 

29.41 

14.41 

211 

1730 

110.16 

54 

288.1 

516 

30 

14.7 

212 

1700 

112.02 

55 

289.3 

508 

30.6 

15 

212.8 

1669 

114.24 

56 

290.5 

500 

81.62 

15.5 

214.5 

1618 

116.28 

67 

291.7 

492 

82.64 

16 

216.3 

1573 

118.32 

58 

292.9 

484 

38.66 

16.5 

218 

1530 

120.36 

59 

294.2 

477 

34.68 

17 

219.6 

1488 

122.4 

60 

295.6 

470 

85.7 

17.5 

221.2 

1440 

124.44 

61 

296.9 

463 

36.72 

18 

222.7 

1411 

126.48 

62 

298.1 

456 

87.74 

18.5 

224.2 

1377 

128.52 

63 

299.2 

449 

38.76 

19 

225.6 

1343 

130.56 

64 

300.3 

443 

39.78 

19.5 

227.1 

1312 

132.62 

65 

301.3 

437 

40.80 

20 

228.5 

1281 

134.64 

66 

302.4 

431 

41.82 

20.5 

229.9 

12o3 

136.68 

67 

303.4 

425 

42.84 

21 

231.2 

1225 

138.72 

68 

304.4 

419 

43.86 

21.5 

232.5 

1199 

140.76 

69 

305.4 

414 

44.88 

22 

233.8 

1174 

142.8 

70 

306.4 

408 

45.90 

22.5 

235.1 

1150 

144.84 

71 

307.4 

403 

46.92 

23 

236.3 

1127 

146.88 

72 

308.4 

398 

46.94 

23.5 

237.5 

1105 

148.92 

73 

309.3 

393 

48.96 

24 

238.7 

1084 

150.96 

74 

310.3 

388 

49.98 

24.5 

239.9 

1064 

153.02 

75 

311.2 

383 

61. 

25 

241 

1044 

155.06 

76 

312.2 

379 

FOECE,  TEMPEEATUEE,  AND  VOLUME  OF  STEAM.       229 


Elastic  force  in 

Tempera- 
ture. 

Volume. 

Elastic  force  in 

Tempera- 
ture. 

Volume. 

inches  of 
mercury. 

pounds  per 
sq.  inch. 

inches  of 
mercury. 

pounds  per 
sq.in. 

157.1 

77 

313.1 

374 

254.99 

125 

349.1 

240 

159.14 

78 

314 

370 

265.19 

•    130 

352.1 

233 

161.18 

79 

314.9 

366 

275.39 

135 

355 

224 

163.22 

80 

315.8 

362 

285.59 

140 

357.9 

218 

165.26 

81 

316.7 

358 

295.79 

145 

"360.6 

210 

167.3 

82    - 

317.6 

354 

306 

150 

363.4 

205 

169.34 

83 

318.4 

850 

316.19 

155 

366 

198 

171.38 

84 

319.3 

346 

326.39 

160 

368.7 

193 

173.42 

85 

320.1 

342 

336.59 

165 

371.1 

187 

183.62 

90 

324.3 

325 

346.79 

170 

373.6 

183 

193.82 

95 

328.2 

310 

357 

175 

376 

178 

203.99 

100 

332 

295 

367.2 

180 

378.4 

174 

214.19 

105 

335.8 

282 

377.1 

185 

380.6 

169 

224.39 

110 

339.2 

271 

387.6 

190 

382.9 

166 

234.59 

115 

342.7 

259 

397.8      ' 

195 

384.1 

161 

244.79 

120 

345.8 

251 

408 

200 

387.3 

158 

SCIENTIFIC   BOOKS. 


(J.  B.)  Hydraulic  Experiments.  Lowell  Hydraulic  Ex« 
-  periments — being  a  Selection  from  Experiments  on  Hydraulic 
Motors,  on  the  Flow  of  Water  over  Weirs,  and  in  Open  Canals  of 
Uniform  Rectangular  Section,  made  at  Lowell,  Mass.  By  J.  B. 
FRANCIS,  Civil  Engineer.  Second  edition,  revised  and  enlarged,  in- 
cluding many  New  Experiments  on  Gauging  Water  in  Open  Canals, 
and  on  the  Flow  through  Submerged  Orifices  and  Diverging  Tubes. 
With  23  copperplates,  beautifully  engraved,  and  about  100  new 
pages  of  text.  I  vol.,  4to.  Cloth.  $15. 

Most  of  the  practical  rules  given  in  the  books  on  hydraulics  have  been  determined  from  ex- 
periments made  in  other  countries,  with  insufficient  apparatus,  and  on  such  a  minute  scale,  that 
In  applying  them  to  the  large  operations  arising  in  practice  in  this  country,  the  engineer  cannot 
but  doubt  their  reliable  applicability.  The  parties  controlling  the  great  water-power  furnished 
by  the  Merrimack  River  at  Lowell,  Massachusetts,  felt  this  so  keenly,  that  they  have  deemed  it 
necessary,  at  great  expense,  to  determine  anew  some  of  the  most  important  rules  for  ganging 
the  flow  of  large  streams  of  water,  and  for  this  purpose  have  caused  to  be  made,  with  great  care, 
several  series  of  experiments  on  a  large  scale,  a  selection  from  which  are  minutely  detailed  in 
this  volume. 

The  work  is  divided  into  two  parts— PART  I.,  on  hydraulic  motors,  includes  ninety-two  experi- 
ments on  an  improved  Fourneyron  Turbine  Water- Wheel,  of  about  two  hundred  horse-power, 
with  rules  and  tables  for  the  construction  of  similar  motors : — Thirteen  experiments  on  a  model 
of  a  centre- vent  water-wheel  of  the  most  simple  design,  and  thirty-nine  experiments  on  a  centre 
vent  water-wheel  of  about  two  hundred  and  thirty  horse-power. 

PART  II.  includes  seventy-four  experiments  made  for  the  purpose  of  determining  the  form  ot 
the  formula  for  computing  the  flow  of  water  over  weirs ;  nine  experiments  on  the  effect  of  back- 
water on  the  flow  over  weirs ;  eighty-eight  experiments  made  for  the  purpose  of  determining 
the  formula  for  computing  the  flow  over  weirs  of  regular  or  standard  forms,  with  several  tables 
of  comparisons  of  the  new  formula  with  the  results  obtained  by  former  experimenters ;  five  ex- 
periments on  the  flow  over  a  dam  in  which  the  crest  was  of  the  same  form  as  that  built  by  the 
Essex  Company  across  the  Merrimack  River  at  Lawrence,  Massachusetts ;  twenty-one  experi- 
ments on  the  effect  of  observing  the  depths  of  water  on  a  weir  at  different  distances  from  the 
weir ;  an  extensive  series  of  experiments  made  for  the  purpose  of  determining  rules  for  gaug- 
ing streams  of  water  in  open  canals,  with  tr Mes  for  facilitating  the  same ;  and  one  hundred  and 
one  experiments  on  the  discharge  of  water  trough  submerged  orifices  and  diverging  tubes,  the 
whole  being  fully  illustrated  by  twenty-three  double  plates  engraved  on  copper. 

In  1855  the  proprietors  of  the  Locks  and  Canals  on  Merrimack  River,  at  whose  expense  most 
of  the  experiments  were  made,  being  willing  that  the  public  should  share  the  benefits  of  the 
scientific  operations  promoted  by  them,  consented  to  the  publication  of  the  first  edition  of  thi» 
work,  which  contained  a  selection  of  the  most  important  hydraulic  experiments  made  at  Lowell 
np  to  that  time.  In  this  second  edition  the  principal  hydraulic  experiments  made  there,  subse- 
quent to  1855,  have  been  added,  including  the  important  series  above  mentioned,  for  determin- 
ing rules  for  the  gauging  the  flow  of  water  in  open  canals,  and  the  interesting  series  on  the  flow 
through  a  submerged  Venturi's  tube,  in  which  a  larger  flow  was  obtained  than  any  we  find  re- 
corded. 

FRANCIS  Q.   B.)  On  the  Strength  of  Cast-Iron  Pillars,  with  Tables 
for  the  use  of  Engineers,  Architects,  and  Builders.    By  JAMES  B, 
FRANCIS,  Civil  Engineer,     i  vol.,  8vo.    Cloth.     $2. 


24  D.  Van  Nostrand's  Publications. 

HOLLEY'S  RAILWAY  PRACTICE.  American  and  European 
Railway  Practice,  in  the  Economical  Generation  of  Steam,  in- 
cluding the  materials  and  construction  of  Coal-burning  Boilers, 
Combustion,  the  Variable  Blast,  Vaporization,  Circulation,  Super- 
heating, Supplying  and  Heating  Feed-water,  &c.,  and  the  adaptation 
of  Wood  and  Coke-burning  Engines  to  Coal-burning ;  and  in  Per- 
manent Way,  including  Road-bed,  Sleepers,  Rails,  Joint  Fastenings, 
Street  Railways,  &c.,  &c.  By  ALEXANDER  L.  HOLLEY,  B.  P.  With 
77  lithographed  plates.  I  vol.,  folio.  Cloth.  $12. 

"  This  is  an  elaborate  treatise  by  one  of  our  ablest  civil  engineers,  on  the  construction  and  use 
of  locomotives,  with  a  few  chapters  on  the  building  of  Railroads.  *  *  *  All  these  subjects 
are  treated  by  the  author,  who  is  a  first-class  railroad  engineer,  in  both  an  intelligent  and  intelli- 
gible manner.  The  facts  and  ideas  are  well  arranged,  and  presented  in  a  clear  and  simple  style, 
accompanied  by  beautiful  engravings,  and  we  presume  the  work  will  be  regarded  as  indispens- 
able by  all  who  are  interested  in  a  knowledge  of  the  construction  of  railroads  and  rolling  stock, 
or  the  working  of  locomotives." — Scientific  American. 

HENRICI  (OLAUS).     Skeleton  Structures,  especially  in  their  Appli- 
cation to  the  Building  of  Steel  and  Iron  Bridges.     By  OLAUS 
HENRICI.     With  folding  plates  and  diagrams,     i  vol.,  8vo.     Cloth. 
$3- 

WHILDEN  (J.   K.)    On  the  Strength  of  Materials  used   in  En- 
gineering Construction.     By  J.  K.  WHILDEN.     i  vol.,   I2mo. 
Cloth.    $2. 

"  We  find  in  this  work  tables  of  the  tensile  strength  of  timber,  metals,  stones,  wire,  rope, 
hempen  cable,  strength  of  thin  cylinders  of  cast-iron ;  modulus  of  elasticity,  strength  of  thick 
cylinders,  as  cannon,  &c.,  effects  of  reheating,  &c.,  resistance  of  timber,  metals,  and  stone  to 
crashing;  experiments  on  brick- work;  strength  of  pillars;  collapse  of  tube;  experiments  on 
punching  and  shearing ;  the  transverse  strength  of  materials ;  beams  of  uniform  strength ;  table 
of  coefficients  of  timber,  stone,  and  iron ;  relative  strength  of  weight  IE  cast-iron,  transverse 
strength  of  alloys  ;  experiments  on  wrought  and  cast-iron  beams :  lattice  girders,  trussed  cast- 
Iron  girders ;  deflection  of  beams ;  torsional  strength  and  torsional  elasticity." — American  Ar- 
tisan. 

C AMPIN  (F.)  On  the  Construction  of  Iron  Roofs.     A  Theoretical 
and  Practical  Treatise.     By  FRANCIS  CAMPIN.    With  wood-cuts  and 
plates  of  Roofs  lately  executed.     Large  8vo.     Cloth.     $3. 

BROOKLYN  WATER-WORKS  AND  SEWERS.  Containing  a 
Descriptive  Account  of  the  Construction  of  the  Works,  and  also 
Reports  on  the  Brooklyn,  Hartford,  Belleville,  and  Cambridge 
Pumping  Engines.  Prepared  and  printed  by  order  of  .re  Board  of 
Water  Commissioners.  With  illustrations.  I  vol.,  folio.  Cloth. 
$15- 

ROEBLING  (J.  A.)     Long  and  Short  Span  Railway  Bridges.     By 
JOHN  A.  ROEBLING,  C.  E.     Illustrated  with  large  copperplate  en- 
gravings of  plans  and  views.     Imperial  folio,  cloth.     $25. 

f*LARKE  (T.   C.)     Description  of  the  Iron  Railway  Bridge  across 
\*^     the  Mississippi  River  at  Quincy,   Illinois.      By  THOMAS  CURTIS 

CLARKE,  Chief  Engineer.      Illustrated  with  numerous  lithographed 

plans,     i  vol.,  4to.     Cloth.     $7.50. 


Scientific  Looks.  25 

WILLIAMSON  (R.  S.)  On  the  Use  of  the  Barometer  on  Surveys 
and  Reconnaissances.  Part  I.  Meteorology  in  its  Connection 
with  Hypsometry.  Part  II.  Barometric  Hypsometry.  By  R.  S. 
WILLIAMSON,  Bvt.  Lieut. -Col.  U.  S.  A.,  Major  Corps  of  Engineers. 
With  Illustrative  Tables  and  Engravings.  Paper  No.  15,  Professional 
Papers,  Corps  of  Engineers,  i  vol.,  4to.  Cloth.  $15. 

"  SAN  FRANCISCO,  CAL.,  Feb.  27, 1867. 
"  Gen.  A.  A.  HUMPHREYS,  Chief  of  Engineers,  U.  S.  Army : 

"  GENERAL— I  have  the  honor  to  submit  to  you,  in  the  following  pages,  the  results  of  my  in- 
vestigations  in  meteorology  and  hypsometry,  made  with  the  view  of  ascertaining  how  far  tha 
barometer  can  be  used  as  a  reliable  instrument  for  determining  altitudes  on  extended  lines  of 
survey  and  reconnaissances.  These  investigations  have  occupied  the  leisure  permitted  me  from 
my  professional  duties  during  the  last  ten  years,  and  I  hope  the  results  will  be  deemed  of  suffi- 
cient value  to  have  a  place  assigned  them  among  the  printed  professional  papers  of  the  United 
States  Corps  of  Engineers.  Very  respectfully,  your  obedient  servant, 

"R.  S.  WILLIAMSON, 
"Bvt  Lt.-Col.  U.  S.  A.,  Major  Corps  of  U.  S.  Engineers." 

TUNNER  (P.)     A  Treatise  on  Roll-Turning  for  the  Manufacture  of 
Iron.     By  PETER  TUNNER.    Translated  and  adapted.     By  JOHN  B. 
PEARSE,  of  the  Pennsylvania  Steel  Works.     With  numerous  engrav- 
ings and  wood-cuts,  i  vol.,  8vo.,  with  i  vol.  folio  of  plates.  Cloth.  $10. 
SHAFFNER  (T.  P.)  Telegraph  Manual.     A  Complete  History  and 
Description  of  the  Semaphoric,  Electric,  and  Magnetic'Telegraphs 
of  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa,  with  625  illustrations.     By  TAL.   P. 
SHAFFNER,  of  Kentucky.    New  edition,    i  vol.,  8vo.    Cloth.    850 pp. 
$6.50. 

MINIFIE  (WM.)  Mechanical  Drawing.  A  Text-Book  of  Geomet- 
rical Drawing  for  the  use  of  Mechanics  and  Schools,  in  which 
the  Definitions  and  Rules  of  Geometry  are  familiarly  explained  ;  the 
Practical  Problems  are  arranged,  from  the  most  simple  to  the  more 
complex,  and  in  their  description  technicalities  are  avoided  as  much 
as  possible.  With  illustrations  for  Drawing  Plans,  Sections,  and 
Elevations  of  Buildings  and  Machinery ;  an  Introduction  to  Isomet- 
rical  Drawing,  and  an  Essay  on  Linear  Perspective  and  Shadows. 
Illustrated  with  over  200  diagrams  engraved  on  steel.  By  WM 
MINIFIE,  Architect.  Seventh  edition.  With  an  Appendix  on  the 
Theory  and  Application  of  Colors,  i  vol. ,  8vo.  Cloth.  $4. 

4  It  is  the  best  work  on  Drawing  that  we  have  ever  seen,  and  is  especially  a  text-book  of  Geo- 
metrical Drawing  for  the  use  of  Mechanics  and  Schools.  No  young  Mechanic,  such  as  a  Ma- 
chinist, Engineer,  Cabinet-Maker,  Millwright,  or  Carpenter  should  be  without  it."— Scientist 
American. 

"  One  of  the  most  comprehensive  works  of  the  kind  ever  published,  and  cannot  but  posseei 
great  value  to  builders.  The  style  is  at  once  elegant  and  substantial."— Pennsylvania  Inquirer 

"Whatever  is  said  is  rendered  perfectly  intelligible  by  remarkably  well-executed  diagrams  on 
Bteel,  leaving  nothing  for  mere  vague  supposition ;  and  the  addition  of  an  introduction  to  iso- 
metrical  drawing,  linear  perspective,  and  the  projection  of  shadows,  winding  up  with  a  usefal 
Index  to  technical  terms."—  Glasgow  Mechanic**  Journal. 

&&-  The  British  f>  ^vernment  has  authorized  the  use  of  this  book  In  their  schools  of  art  at 
Somerset  House,  London,  and  throughout  the  kingdom. 

MINIFIE  (WM.)  Geometrical  Drawing.    Abridged  from  the  octavo 
edition,  for  the  use  of  Schools.     Illustrated  with  48  steel  plates. 
Fifth  edition,  i  vol.,  I2mo.     Half  roan.     $1.50. 

"It  is  well  adapted  as  a  text-book  of  drawing  tc  be  used  in  our  High  Schools  and  Academies 
where  tb  .s  useful  branch  of  the  fine  arts  has  been  hitherto  too  much  neglected,"— Button  Jovrna, 


26  D.  Van  Nostrand's  Publications. 

PEIRCE'S  SYSTEM  OF  ANALYTIC  MECHANICS.  Physical 
and  Celestial  Mechanics,  by  BENJAMIN  PEIRCE,  Perkins  Professol 
of  Astronomy  and  Mathematics  in  Harvard  University,  and  Con- 
sulting Astronomer  of  the  American  Ephemeris  and  Nautical  Al- 
manac. Developed  in  four  systems  of  Analytic  Mechanics,  Celestial 
Mechanics,  Potential  Physics,  and  Analytic  Morphology.  I  vol., 
4  to.  Cloth.  $  10. 

f~*  ILLMORE.     Practical  Treatise  on  Limes,  Hydraulic  Cements,  and 
VJ     Mortars.     Papers  on  Practical  Engineering,  U.  S.  Engineer  De- 
partment, No.  9,  containing  Reports  of  numerous  experiments  con- 
ducted in  New  York  City,  during  the  years  1858  to  1861,  inclusive. 
By  Q.  A.  GILLMORE,  Brig. -General  U.  S.  Volunteers,  and  Major  U. 

5.  Corps  of  Engineers.     With  numerous  illustrations.     One  volume, 
octavo.     Cloth.     $4. 

ROGERS  (H.   D.)     Geology  of  Pennsylvania.     A  complete  Scien- 
tific Treatise  on  the  Coal  Formations.     By  HENRY  D.  ROGERS, 
Geologist.     3  vols.,  4to.,  plates  and  maps.     Boards.     $30.00. 

BURGH  (N.  P.)  Modern  Marine  Engineering,  applied  to  Paddle 
and  Screw  Propulsion.  Consisting  of  36  colored  plates,  259 
Practical  Woodcut  Illustrations,  and  403  pages  of  Descriptive  Matter, 
the  whole  being  an  exposition  of  the  present  practice  of  the  follow- 
ing firms  :  Messrs.  J.  Penn  &  Sons ;  Messrs.  Maudslay,  Sons,  & 
Field  ;  Messrs.  James  Watt  &  Co.  ;  Messrs.  J.  &  G.  Rennie  ;  Messrs. 

6.  Napier  &  Sons  ;  Messrs.  J.  &  W.   Dudgeon  ;  Messrs.   Ravenhill 
&  Hodgson  ;  Messrs.   Humphreys  &  Tenant ;  Mr.  J.   T.   Spencer, 
and  Messrs.  Forrester  &  Co.     By  N.  P.  BURGH,  Engineer.     In  one 
thick  vol.,  4to.     Cloth.     $30.00.     Half  morocco.     $35.00. 

ING.     Lessons  and  Practical  Notes  on  Steam,  the  Steam-Engine, 
Propellers,  &c.,  &c.,   for  Young  Marine  Engineers,   Students, 
and  others.     By  the  late  W.   R.   KING,  U.  S.  N.     Revised  by  Chief- 
Engineer  J.  W.  KING,  U.  S.  Navy.     Ninth  edition,  enlarged.     8vo. 
Cloth.     $2. 

ARD.  Steam  for  the  Million.  A  Popular  Treatise  on  Steam  and 
its  Application  to  the  Useful  Arts,  especially  to  Navigation.  By 
J.  H.  WARD,  Commander  U.  S.  Navy.  New  and  revised  edition, 
i  vol.,  8vo.  Cloth.  $i. 

WALKER.     Screw  Propulsion.      Notes  on  Screw  Propulsion,   its 
Rise  and  History.     By  Capt.  W.   H.  WALKER,  U.  S.  Navy.      I 
vol.,  8vo.     Cloth.     75  cents. 

THE  STEAM-ENGINE  INDICATOR,  and  the  -Improved  Mano- 
meter Steam  and  Vacuum  Gauges  :  Their  Utility  and  Application. 
By  PAUL  STILLMAN.     New  edition,     i  vol.,  12 mo.     Flexible  cloth. 
$i. 

T  SHERWOOD.     Engineering  Precedents  for  Steam  Machinery.     Ar- 
J.     ranged  in  the  most  practical  and  useful  manner  for  Engineers.     By 
B.   F.   ISHERWOOD,  Civil  Engineer  U.  S.  Navy.     With  illustration* 
Two  volumes  in  one.     8vo.     Cloth.     $2.50. 


K 


W 


Scientific  Books.  2i 

POOR'S  METHOD  OF  COMPARING  THE  LINES  AND 
DRAUGHTING  VESSELS  PROPELLED  BY  SAIL  OR 
STEAM,  including  a  Chapter  on  Laying  off  on  the  Mould-Loft 
Floor.  By  SAMUEL  M.  POOK,  Naval  Constructor.  i  vol.,  8vo. 
With  illustrations.  Cloth.  $5. 

SWEET  (S.  H.)  Special  Report  on  Coal ;  showing  its  Distribution, 
Classification  and  Cost  delivered  over  different  routes  to  various 
points  in  the  State  of  New  York,  and  the  principal  cities  on  the 
Atlantic  Coast.  By  S.  H.  SWEET.  With  maps,  i  vol.,  8vo.  Cloth. 
$3- 

A  LEXANDER  (J.   H.)     Universal  Dictionary  of  Weights  and  Meas- 
*~V     ures,  Ancient  and  Modern,  reduced  to  the  standards  of  the  United 
States  of  America.     By  J.   H.  ALEXANDER.     New  edition,     i  vol., 
8vo.     Cloth.     $3.50. 

"  As  a  standard  work  of  reference  this  book  should  be  In  every  library ;  it  is  ove  which  wo 
have  long  wanted,  and  it  will  save  us  much  trouble  and  research."— Scientific  American. 

I 

CRAIG  (B.  F. )     Weights  and  Measures.     An  Account  of  the  Deci- 
mal System,  with  Tables  of  Conversion  for  Commercial  and  Scien- 
tific Uses.     By  B.  F.  CRAIG,   M.  D.     i  vol.,  square  32010.     Limp 
cloth.      50  cents. 

"  The  most  lucid,  accurate,  and  useful  of  all  the  hand-books  on  this  subject  that  we  have  yet 
eeen.  It  gives  forty-seven  tables  of  comparison  between  the  English  and  French  denominations 
of  length,  area,  capacity,  weight,  and  the  centigrade  and  Fahrenheit  thermometers,  with  clear 
instructions  how  to  use  them ;  and  to  this  practical  portion,  which  helps  to  make  the  transition 
os  easy  as  possible,  is  prefixed  a  scientific  explanation  of  the  errors  in  the  metric  system,  and 
how  they  may  be  corrected  in  the  laboratory."— Nation. 

BAUERMAN.  Treatise  on  the  Metallurgy  of  Iron,  containing 
outlines  of  the  History  of  Iron  manufacture,  methods  of  Assay, 
and  analysis  of  Iron  Ores,  processes  of  manufacture  of  iron  and 
Steel,  etc.,  etc.  By  H.  BAUERMAN.  First  American  edition.  Re- 
vised and  enlarged,  with  an  appendix  on  the  Martin  Process  for 
making  Steel,  from  the  report  of  Abram  S.  Hewitt.  Illustrated 
with  numerous  wood  engravings.  I2mo.  Cloth.  $2.50. 

"  This  is  an  important  addition  to  the  stock  of  technical  works  published  in  this  country.  It 
embodies  the  latest  facts,  discoveries,  and  processes  connected  with  the  manufacture  of  Iron 
and  steel,  and  should  be  in  the  hands  of  every  person  interested  in  the  subject,  as  well  as  in  all 
technical  and  scientific  libraries."— Scientific  American. 


H 


ARRISON.  Mechanic's  Tool  Book,  with  practical  rules  and  sug- 
gestions, for  the  use  of  Machinists,  Iron  Workers,  and  others. 
By  W.  B.  HARRISON,  associate  editor  of  the  "American  Artisan." 
Illustrated  with  44  engravings.  I2mo.  Cloth.  $2.50. 

"  This  work  is  specially  adapted  to  meet  the  wants  of  Machinists  and  workers  ID  Iron  gene*, 
ally.  It  is  made  up  of  the  work-day  experience  of  an  intellfgent  and  ingenious  mechanic,  who 
had  the  faculty  of  adapting  tools  to  various  purposes.  The  practicability  of  his  pUns  and  sug- 
gestions are  made  apparent  even  to  the  unpractised  eye  by  a  series  of  well-executed  wcxxl  <<« 
pavings."— Philadelphia  Inquirer. 


28  D.  Van  Nbstrand's  Publications. 

PLYMPTON.  The  Blow-Pipe  :  A  System  of  Instruction  in  its  prac- 
tical use,  being  a  graduated  course  of  Analysis  for  the  use  of 
students,  and  all  those  engaged  in  the  Examination  of  Metallic 
Combinations.  Second  edition,  with  an  appendix  and  a  copious 
index.  By  GEORGE  W.  PLYMPTON,  of  the  Polytechnic  Institute, 
Brooklyn.  I2mo.  Cloth.  $2. 

•*  This  manual  probably  has  no  superior  in  the  English  language  as  a  text-book  for  beginners, 
or  as  a  guide  to  the  student  working  without  a  teacher.  To  the  latter  many  illustrations  of  the 
utensils  and  apparatus  required  in  using  the  blow-pipe,  as  well  as  the  fully  illustrated  descrip- 
tion of  the  blow-pipe  flame,  will  be  especially  serviceable."— New  York  Teacher. 

NUGENT.     Treatise  on  Optics  :  or,  Light  and  Sight,  theoretically 
and  practically  treated  ;  with  the  application  to  Fine  Art  and  In- 
dustrial Pursuits.     By  E.   NUGENT.     With  one  hundred  and  three 
illustrations.      I2mo.     Cloth.     $2. 

"  This  book  is  of  a  practical  rather  than  a  theoretical  kind,  and  is  designed  to  afford  accurate 
and  complete  information  to  all  interested  in  applications  of  the  science."— Round  TaNe. 

OILVERSMITH  (Julius).     A  Practical  Hand-Book  for  Miners,  Met- 
O     allurgists,  and  Assayers,  comprising  the  most  recent  improvements 

in  the  disintegration,  amalgamation,  smelting,  and  parting  of  the 

Precious  Ores,  with  a  Comprehensive  Digest  of  the  Mining  Laws. 

Greatly  augmented,  revised,  and  corrected.     By  JULIUS  SILVERSMITH. 

Fourth  edition.    Profusely  illustrated.     I  vol.,  12 mo.    Cloth.    $3. 

C LOUGH.     The  Contractors'  Manual  and  Builders'  Price-Book.     By 
A.  B.  CLOUGH,  Architect,     i  vol.,  i8mo.     Cloth.     75  cents. 

BRUNNOW.      Spherical    Astronomy.     By   F.    BRTJNNOW,    Ph.    Dr. 
Translated  by  the  Author  from  the  Second  German  edition.     I 
vol.,  8vo.     Cloth.     $6.50. 

f^HAUVENET  (Prof.  Wm.)     New  method  of  Correcting  Lunar  Dis- 
^^     tances,  and  Improved  Method  of  Finding  the  Error  and  Rate  of  a 

Chronometer,  by  equal  altitudes.     By  WM.  CHAUVENET,  LL.D.     i 

vol.,  8vo.     Cloth.     $2. 

SYNOPSIS  OF   BRITISH   GAS   LIGHTING,    comprising  the 
essence  of  the  "London  Journal  of  Gas  Lighting"  from  1849  to 
1868.     Arranged  and  executed  by  JAMES  R.  SMEDBERG,  C.  E.  of  the 
San  Francisco  Gas  Works.     Issued  only  to  subscribers.    4to.    Cloth. 
$15.00    In  press. 

1  AS  WORKS  OF  LONDON.    By  ZERAH  COLBURN.    I2mo.    Boards. 
r     60  cents. 

EWSON.     Principles    and   Practice   of  Embanking   Lands   from 
River  Floods,  as  applied  to  the  Levees  of  the  Mississippi.     By 
WILLIAM  HEWSON,  Civil  Engineer,      i  vol.,  8vo.     Cloth.     $2. 

"  This  is  a  valuable  treatise  on  the  principles  and  practice  of  embanking  lands  from  river 
loods,  as  applied  to  Levees  of  the  Mississippi,  by  a  highly  intelligent  and  experienced  engineer. 
The  author  says  it  is  a  first  attempt  to  reduce  to  order  and  to  rule  the  design,  execution,  aad 
•measurement  of  the  Levees  of  the  Mississippi.  It  is  a  most  ueeiul  and  need»v  contribution  to 

ientific  literature."— Philadelphia  Evening  Journal. 


A 


H 


Scientific  Books.  29 

WEISBACH  (Julius).     Principles  of  the  Mechanics  of  Machinery 
and   Engineering.     By   DR.    JULIUS   WEISBACH,    of  Freiburg. 
Translated  from  the  last  German  edition.     Vol.  i.  8vo,  cloth.     $10. 

HUNT  (R.  M.)    Designs  for  the  Gateways  of  the  Southern  Entrances 
to  the  Central  Park.     By  RICHARD  M.  HUNT.     With  a  descrip- 
/    tion  of  the  designs.      I  vol.,  410.     Illustrated.     Cloth.     $5. 

PEET.     Manual  of  Inorganic  Chemistry  for  Students.     By  the  late 
DUDLEY  PEET,  M.  D.    Revised  and  enlarged  by  ISAAC  LEWIS  PEET, 
A.  M.     i8mo.     Cloth.     75  cents. 

WHITNEY  (J.  P.)  Colorado,  in  the  United  States  of  America. 
Schedule  of  Ores  contributed  by  sundry  persons  to  the  Paris 
Universal  Exposition  of  1867,  with  some  Information  about  the 
Region  and  its  Resources.  By  J.  P.  WHITNEY,  of  Boston,  Com- 
missioner from  the  Territory.  Pamphlet.  8vo.,  with  maps.  Lon- 
don, 1867.  25  cents. 

WHITNEY  (J.  P.)     Silver  Mining  Regions  of  Colorado,  with  some 
account  of  the  different  processes  now  being  introduced  for 
working  the   Gold   Ores   of  that  Territory.     By  J.    P.    WHITNEY. 
1 2  mo.     Paper.     25  cents. 

"  This  is  a  most  valuable  little  book,  containing  a  vast  amount  of  practical  information  about 
that  region.  It  will  be  found  useful  to  men  of  a  scientific  turn  of  mind,  should  they  never  corn- 
template  a  journey  to  the  region  of  silver  and  gold." — Fatt  Rivtr  News. 

ILVER   DISTRICTS   OF  NEVADA.      8vo.,   with  map.     Paper. 
35  cents. 

cCORMICK  (R.  C.)      Arizona  :    Its   Resources   and   Prospects. 
By  Hon.  R.  C.  McCoRMicK.   With  map.    8vo.    Paper.    25  cents. 

PETERS.     Notes  on  the  Origin,  Nature,  Prevention,  and  Treatment 
of  Asiatic  Cholera.     By  JOHN  C.  PETERS,  M.  D.     Second  edition. 
With  an  appendix  and  map.     12 mo.     Cloth.     $1.50. 

SEYMOUR.     Western  Incidents  connected  with  the  Union  Pacific 
Railroad.     By  SILAS  SEYMOUR.     i2mo.     Cloth.     $i. 

EULOGIES  IN  MEMORY  OF  MAJ.-GEN.  JAMES  S.  WADS- 
WORTH  AND  COL.   PETER  A.  PORTER,  before  the  "  Cen- 
tury Association."     Tinted  paper.     8vo.     Paper.     $i. 

PALMER.     Antarctic  Mariners'  Song.     By  JAMES  CROXALL  PALMER, 
U.  S.  N.     Illustrated.     Cloth,  gilt,  bevelled  boards.     $3. 

"  Tte  poem  is  founded  upon  and  narrates  the  episodes  of  the  exploring  expedition  of  a  small 
•ailing  vessel,  the  '  Flying  Fish,'  in  company  with  the  '  Peacock,'  in  the  South  Seas,  in  1833- 
t2.  The  '  Flying  Fish1  was  too  small  to  be  safe  or  comfortable  in  that  Antarctic  region,  al- 
though we  find  in  the  poem  but  little  of  complaint  or  murmuring  at  the  hardships  the  sailor* 
were  compelled  to  endure."— Athenaeum. 

FRENCH'S   ETHICS.     Practical  Ethics.     By  Rev.  J.  W.   FRENCH, 

D.  D.,  Professor  of  Ethics,  U.  S.  Military  Academy.  Prepared  for 

the  Uive  of  Students  in  the  Military  Academy,     i  vol.  8vo.     Cloth. 
$4.50. 


S 
M 


30  D.  Van  Nostrand's  Publications. 

A  UCHINCLOSS.  Application  of  the  Slide  Valve  and  Link  Motion 
**•  to  Stationary,  Portable,  Locomotive,  and  Marine  Engines,  with  new 
and  simple  methods  for  proportioning  the  parts.  By  WILLIAM  S. 
AUCHINCLOSS,  Civil  and  Mechanical  Engineer.  Designed  as  a  hand- 
book for  Mechanical  Engineers,  Master  Mechanics,  Draughtsmen,  and 
Students  of  Steam  Engineering.  All  dimensions  of  the  valve  are 
found  with  the  greatest  ease  by  means  of  a  PRINTED  SCALE,  and  propor- 
tions of  the  link  determined  without  the  assistance  of  a  model.  Illus- 
trated by  37  woodcuts  and  21  lithographic  plates,  together  with  a  cop- 
perplate engraving  of  the  Travel  Scale,  i  vol.  8vo.  Cloth.  $3. 

H  UMBER'S  STRAINS  IN  GIRDERS.      A  Handy  Book  for  the 
Calculation  of  Strains  in  Girders  and  Similar  Structures,  and  their 
Strength,  consisting  of  Formulae  and  Corresponding  Diagrams,  with 
numerous  details  for  practical  application.       By  WILLIAM  HUMBER. 
i  vol.     i8mo.     Fully  illustrated.     Cloth.     $2.50. 

GLYNN  ON  THE  POWER  OF  WATER,  as  applied  to  drive  Flour 
Mills,  and  to  give  motion  to  Turbines  and  other  Hydrostatic  En- 
gines.    By  JOSEPH  GLYNN,  F.  R.  S,     Third  edition,  revised  and  en- 
larged, with  numerous  illustrations.     i2mo.     Cloth.     $1.25. 

HOW  TO  BECOME  A  SUCCESSFUL  ENGINEER  ;  being  Hints 
to   Youths   intending   to   adopt  the   Profession.      By   BERNARD 
STUART.     Fourth  edition.      i8mo.     Cloth.     75  cents. 

"  Parents  and  guardians,  with  youths  under  their  charge  destined  for  the  profession,  as  well 
as  youths  themselves  who  intend  to  adopt  it,  will  do  well  to  study  and  ohey  the  plain  curricu- 
lum in  this  little  book.  Its  doctrine  will,  we  hesitate  not  to  say,  if  practised,  tend  to  fill  the 
ranks  of  the  profession  with  men  conscious  of  the  heavy  responsibilities  placed  in  their 
charge."— Practical  Mechanic's  Journal. 

TREATISE   ON  ORE  DEPOSITS.      By  BERNHARD  VON  COTTA, 
Professor  of  Geology  in  the  Royal  School  of  Mines,  Freidberg, 
Saxony.     Translated  from  the  second  German  edition,  by  FREDERICK 
PRIME,  Jr.,  Mining  Engineer,  and  revised  by  the  author,  with  numer- 
ous illustrations.      I  vol.     8vo.  Cloth,  $4. 

A  TREATISE  ON  THE  RICHARDS  STEAM-ENGINE  INDICA- 
**•  TOR,  with  directions  for  its  use.  By  CHARLES  T.  PORTER. 
Revised,  with  notes  and  large  additions  as  developed  by  American 
Practice,  with  an  Appendix  containing  useful  formulae  and  rules  for 
Engineers.  By  F.  W.  BACON,  M.  E.,  member  of  the  American 
Society  of  Civil  Engineers.  I2mo.  Illustrated.  Cloth.  $i 

A  COMPENDIOUS  MANUAL  OF  QUALITATIVE  CHEMICAL 
ANALYSIS.     By  CHAS.  W.  ELIOT,  and  FRANK  H.  STORER,  Profs, 
of  Chemistry  in  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology.       I2mo. 
Illustrated.     Clo.  $1.50. 

TNVESriGATIONS  OF  FORMULAS,  for  the  Strength  of  the  Iron 
1     Parts  of  Steam   Machinery.       By  J.  D.  VAN  BUREN,  Jr.,  C.  E.      I 
vol.     8vo.     Illustrated.     Cloth.     $2. 


r         -oM-UBRARYQr  .^MINIVERS/A         vvlOS  ANCF.tfj> 

^  '    '  —  ~  ^      ^  ^*^      ."& 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 

Los  Angeles 
This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below. 


AUG191985 


JUN261998 


r-* 


OillVD-JO*' 


ji-UBRARY-Oc 


—  £    i? 

I 


8     i 


v^lOSANCEtfx>          ^OKAUF<%       ^ 
t/->-^      £(L/^\1    t 


FR%       ^lOSANCElfjv 

p  !&l  I 


a    f/ 


I   I 


I     ^. 


<%,       ^OFCAIIFO/?^ 

?! !'  ~ 

I  &    *%. 


i  * 


1   I 

I   I 

#   I 


vvlOSANCElfj> 


r? 


^lOSANCElfT> 


" 


